Текст книги "The Innovators: How a Group of Inventors, Hackers, Geniuses, and Geeks Created the Digital Revolution"

Автор книги: Walter Isaacson

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18. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.

19. Vernor Vinge, “The Coming Technological Singularity,” Whole Earth Review, Winter 1993. See also Ray Kurzweil, “Accelerating Intelligence,” http://www.kurzweilai.net/.

20. J. C. R. Licklider, “Man-Computer Symbiosis,” IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics, Mar. 1960.

21. Kelly and Hamm, Smart Machines, 7.

22. Kasparov, “The Chess Master and the Computer.”

23. Kelly and Hamm, Smart Machines, 2.

24. “Why Cognitive Systems?” IBM Research website, http://www.research.ibm.com/cognitive-computing/why-cognitive-systems.shtml.

25. Author’s interview with David McQueeney.

26. Author’s interview with Ginni Rometty.

27. Author’s interview with Ginni Rometty.

28. Kelly and Hamm, Smart Machines, 3.

29. “Accelerating the Co-Evolution,” Doug Engelbart Institute, http://www.dougengelbart.org/about/co-evolution.html; Thierry Bardini, Bootstrapping: Douglas Engelbart, Coevolution, and the Origins of Personal Computing (Stanford, 2000).

30. Nick Bilton, Hatching Twitter (Portfolio, 2013), 203.

31. Usually misattributed to Thomas Edison, although there is no evidence he ever said it. Often used by Steve Case.

32. Yochai Benkler, “Coase’s Penguin, or, Linux and the Nature of the Firm,” Yale Law Journal (2002).

33. Steven Johnson, “The Internet? We Built That,” New York Times, Sept. 21, 2012.

34. Author’s interview with Larry Page. The quote form Steve Jobs comes from an interview I did with him for my previous book.

35. Kelly and Hamm, Smart Machines, 7.

PHOTO CREDITS

Lovelace: Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Lord Byron: © The Print Collector/Corbis

Babbage: Popperfoto/Getty Images

Difference Engine: Allan J. Cronin

Analytical Engine: Science Photo Library/Getty Images

Jacquard loom: David Monniaux

Jacquard portrait: © Corbis

Bush: © Bettmann/Corbis

Turing: Wikimedia Commons/Original at the Archives Centre, King’s College, Cambridge

Shannon: Alfred Eisenstaedt/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images

Stibitz: Denison University, Department of Math and Computer Science

Zuse: Courtesy of Horst Zuse

Atanasoff: Special Collections Department/Iowa State University

Atanasoff-Berry Computer: Special Collections Department/Iowa State University

Aiken: Harvard University Archives, UAV 362.7295.8p, B 1, F 11, S 109

Mauchly: Apic/Contributor/Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Eckert: © Bettmann/Corbis

ENIAC in 1946: University of Pennsylvania Archives

Aiken and Hopper: By a staff photographer / © 1946 The Christian Science Monitor (www.CSMonitor.com). Reprinted with permission. Also courtesy of the Grace Murray Hopper Collection, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.

Jennings and Bilas with ENIAC: U.S. Army photo

Jennings: Copyright © Jean Jennings Bartik Computing Museum—Northwest Missouri State University. All rights reserved. Used with permission.

Snyder: Copyright © Jean Jennings Bartik Computing Museum—Northwest Missouri State University. All rights reserved. Used with permission.

Von Neumann: © Bettmann/Corbis

Goldstine: Courtesy of the Computer History Museum

Eckert and Cronkite with UNIVAC: U.S. Census Bureau

Bardeen, Shockley, Brattain: Lucent Technologies/Agence France-Presse/Newscom

First transistor: Reprinted with permission of Alcatel-Lucent USA Inc.

Shockley Nobel toast: Courtesy of Bo Lojek and the Computer History Museum

Noyce: © Wayne Miller/Magnum Photos

Moore: Intel Corporation

Fairchild Semiconductor: © Wayne Miller/Magnum Photos

Kilby: Fritz Goro/ The LIFE Picture Collection/ Getty Images

Kilby’s microchip: Image courtesy of Texas Instruments

Rock: Louis Fabian Bachrach

Grove, Noyce, Moore: Intel Corporation

Spacewar: Courtesy of the Computer History Museum

Bushnell: © Ed Kashi/VII/Corbis

Licklider: Karen Tweedy-Holmes

Taylor: Courtesy of Bob Taylor

Larry Roberts: Courtesy of Larry Roberts

Davies: National Physical Laboratory © Crown Copyright / Science Source Images

Baran: Courtesy of RAND Corp.

Kleinrock: Courtesy of Len Kleinrock

Cerf and Kahn: © Louie Psihoyos/Corbis

Kesey: © Joe Rosenthal/San Francisco Chronicle/Corbis

Brand: © Bill Young/San Francisco Chronicle/Corbis

Whole Earth Catalog cover: Whole Earth Catalog

Engelbart: SRI International

First mouse: SRI International

Brand: SRI International

Kay: Courtesy of the Computer History Museum

Dynabook: Courtesy of Alan Kay

Felsenstein: Cindy Charles

People’s Computer Company cover: DigiBarn Computer Museum

Ed Roberts: Courtesy of the Computer History Museum

 Popular Electronics cover: DigiBarn Computer Museum

Allen and Gates: Bruce Burgess, courtesy of Lakeside School, Bill Gates, Paul Allen, and Fredrica Rice

Gates: Wikimedia Commons/Albuquerque, NM police department

Microsoft team: Courtesy of the Microsoft Archives

Jobs and Wozniak: © DB Apple/dpa/Corbis

Jobs screenshot: YouTube

Stallman: Sam Ogden

Torvalds: © Jim Sugar/Corbis

Brand and Brilliant: © Winni Wintermeyer

Von Meister: The Washington Post/Getty Images

Case: Courtesy of Steve Case

Berners-Lee: CERN

Andreessen: © Louie Psihoyos/Corbis

Hall and Rheingold: Courtesy of Justin Hall

Bricklin and Williams: Don Bulens

Wales: Terry Foote via Wikimedia Commons

Brin and Page: Associated Press

Lovelace: Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Vitruvian Man: © The Gallery Collection/Corbis

TIMELINE CREDITS (IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER)

Lovelace: Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Hollerith: Library of Congress via Wikimedia Commons

Bush (first image): © Bettmann/Corbis

Vacuum tube: Ted Kinsman/Science Source

Turing: Wikimedia Commons/Original at the Archives Centre, King’s College, Cambridge

Shannon: Alfred Eisenstaedt/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images

Aiken: Harvard University Archives, UAV 362.7295.8p, B 1, F 11, S 109

Atanasoff: Special Collections Department/Iowa State University

Bletchley Park: Draco2008 via Wikimedia Commons

Zuse: Courtesy of Horst Zuse

Mauchly: Apic/Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Atanasoff-Berry Computer: Special Collections Department/Iowa State University

Colossus: Bletchley Park Trust/SSPL via Getty Images

Harvard Mark I: Harvard University

Von Neumann: © Bettmann/Corbis

ENIAC: U.S. Army photo

Bush (second image): © Corbis

Transistor invention at Bell Labs: Lucent Technologies/Agence France-Presse/Newscom

Hopper: Defense Visual Information Center

UNIVAC: U.S. Census Bureau

Regency radio: © Mark Richards/CHM

Shockley: Emilio Segrè Visual Archives / American Institute of Physics / Science Source

Fairchild Semiconductor: © Wayne Miller/Magnum Photos

Sputnik: NASA

Kilby: Fritz Goro/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images

Licklider: MIT Museum

Baran: Courtesy of RAND Corp.

Spacewar: Courtesy of the Computer History Museum

First mouse: SRI International

Kesey: © Hulton-Deutsch Collection/Corbis

Moore: Intel Corporation

Brand: © Bill Young/San Francisco Chronicle/Corbis

Taylor: Courtesy of Bob Taylor

Larry Roberts: Courtesy of Larry Roberts

Noyce, Moore, Grove: Intel Corporation

Whole Earth Catalog cover: Whole Earth Catalog

Engelbart: SRI International

ARPANET nodes: Courtesy of Raytheon BBN Technologies

4004: Intel Corporation

Tomlinson: Courtesy of Raytheon BBN Technologies

Bushnell: © Ed Kashi/VII/Corbis

Kay: Courtesy of the Computer History Museum

Community Memory: Courtesy of the Computer History Museum

Cerf and Kahn: © Louie Psihoyos/Corbis

Popular Mechanics cover: DigiBarn Computer Museum

Gates and Allen: Bruce Burgess, courtesy of Lakeside School, Bill Gates, Paul Allen, and Fredrica Rice

Apple I: Ed Uthman

Apple II: © Mark Richards/CHM

IBM PC: IBM/Science Source

Gates with Windows disc: © Deborah Feingold/Corbis

Stallman: Sam Ogden

Jobs with Macintosh: Diana Walker/Contour By Getty Images

WELL logo: Image courtesy of The WELL at www.well.com. The logo is a registered trademark of the Well Group Incorporated.

Torvalds: © Jim Sugar/Corbis

Berners-Lee: CERN

Andreessen: © Louie Psihoyos/Corbis

Case: Courtesy of Steve Case

Hall: Courtesy of Justin Hall

Kasparov: Associated Press

Brin and Page: Associated Press

Williams: Courtesy of Ev Williams

Wales: Terry Foote via Wikimedia Commons

IBM Watson: Ben Hider/Getty Images

INDEX

Abbate, Janet, 251

Aberdeen Proving Ground, 38, 72, 73, 97–98, 104, 105

Abound, 395

Acid Tests, 269

acoustic delay line, 101

“Action Office” console, 280

Ada, Countess of Lovelace, 6, 7–18, 446, 493

in affair with tutor, 13, 15

algorithms worked out by, 27–29

Analytical Engine business plan of, 30–32

Analytical Engine potential seen by, 24

Babbage requested to be tutor of, 16–17

Babbage’s first meeting with, 7–8

at Babbage’s salons, 15, 18

Bernoulli numbers computed by, 25, 27–29, 31, 45, 107

on “Combining Faculty,” 23

on connection between poetry and analysis, 7, 9, 17–18, 24, 33, 467, 486, 487

as doubtful about thinking machines, 8, 12, 29, 122, 123, 126, 467–68, 475, 478

on general purpose machines, 26–27, 33, 39, 46, 87, 276, 467

illnesses of, 16, 31, 32

marriage of, 15

“Notes” of, 24–30, 33, 93, 122, 480

opiates taken by, 17, 31, 32

programming explored by, 25–26, 27–29, 88, 90, 107, 108, 478

on subroutines, 28, 93

temperament and mood swings of, 7, 13, 14, 15, 16, 31

tutored in math, 7, 13–14, 16–17

Ada (programming language), 33

Adafruit Industries, 303n

Adams, John, 481

Adams, Samuel, 481

Adams, Sherman, 228–29

Adcock, Willis, 173–74

advertising, 285, 301, 419, 420, 463

Age of Wonder, The (Holmes), 9

Aiken, Howard, 2, 69, 75, 81, 88, 89, 105, 119, 329, 480

Difference Engine of, 50–52, 86, 90

and operation of Mark I, 92–93

stubborness of, 94

Aiken Lab, 329, 334, 336

Air Force, U.S., 221, 238, 241, 247, 282, 305

Albert, Prince Consort, 23–24

Albrecht, Bob, 297, 304

Alcorn, Al, 211–13, 347

algebra, 14, 26

algorithms, 27–29

Allen, Paul, 312, 313, 314, 317, 330–31, 332, 347, 358–59, 367, 416

BASIC for Altair designed by, 332–36, 337

8008 language written by, 325–27

electronic grid work of, 327–28

Gates’s disputes with, 322–23, 328, 338–39, 352, 361

in Lakeside Programming Group, 318–27

PDP-10 work of, 320, 321

“All Watched Over by Machines of Loving Grace” (Brautigan), 267–68, 475

ALOHAnet, 256

Alpert, Dick, 269

Altair, 264, 332, 350

Altair 8800, 309, 310–11, 313

BASIC program for, 332–36, 337, 340–43

exhibition of, 340–41

AltaVista, 227, 436, 459, 462, 463

American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac, 206

American Physical Society, 165

American Research and Development Corporation (ARDC), 186

America Online (AOL), 395, 399–400, 402, 419, 421, 422

Ames Research Center, 273

Ampex, 208, 211

analog, 56

digital vs., 36–40, 469, 472

Analytical Engine, 21, 22–23, 38, 39, 93, 107, 120, 126, 289, 474

Differences Engine vs., 25–26

Lovelace’s business plan for, 30–32

Lovelace’s views on potential of, 24

Menabrea’s notes on, 24–28

punch cards and, 35, 487

as reprogrammable, 90

Analytical Society, 19

“Anatomy of a Large-Scale Hypertextual Web Search Engine, The” (Brin and Page), 461–62

Anderson, Sean, 460

Andreessen, Marc, 404, 416–17, 421

Android, 381

A-O system, 117

Apollo Guide Computer, 182

Apollo program, 181–82, 257, 280

Apple, 193n, 264, 333n, 352–53, 362–69, 381, 398–99, 434, 483

creativity of, 486–87

headquarters of, 139, 481

Jobs ousted from, 411, 485

lawsuits of, 112

Microsoft’s contract with, 367–69

patents of, 483

Apple I, 352

Apple II, 353, 354, 355–56, 364, 388

AppleLink, 398–99

Apple Writer, 356

Applied Minds, 472

Aristotle, 485–86

Armstrong, Neil, 182

ARPA, 228–29, 230, 231–32, 234–35, 256, 258, 289, 385

funding for, 235–37

ARPANET, 208, 221, 235–37, 246, 250–61, 287, 383, 384, 385, 402, 481, 482

bids on minicomputers for, 251–52

connected to Internet, 258–59

distributed network of, 250, 253

first four nodes of, 252–53, 416

military defense and, 247–51

start of, 255–56

ARPANET News, 261

arsenic, 135

artificial intelligence, 4–5, 122, 226, 284, 285, 455, 468, 470–71

human-machine interaction and, 275, 474–79

as mirage, 468, 469, 474

video games and, 211

Artificial Intelligence Lab, 202–3

Asimov, Isaac, 393

assembly code, 322

assembly line, 20, 32–33

Association for Computing Machinery, 84n

“As We May Think” (Bush), 263, 273, 274, 276, 416, 446, 465, 475

Atanasoff, John Vincent, 54–62, 57, 65–70, 74, 81, 134, 365, 481

influence of, 82, 85

Atanasoff, Lura, 66

Atanasoff-Berry computer, 75

AT&T, 132, 153, 240, 241, 242, 386–87

Atari, 211–15, 265, 329, 347–48, 350, 396

founding of, 210

Atari 800, 356

Atkinson, Bill, 365, 434

Atlantic, 263, 273

atom bomb, 95, 219

Atomic Energy Commission, 120

atomic power, 72

ATS-3 satellite, 271

Augmentation Research Center, 221, 278, 285

augmented intelligence, 274

“Augmenting Human Intellect” (Engelbart), 275, 475–76

Auletta, Ken, 451

Autobiography (Franklin), 378

automata, 19

Automatic Computing Engine (ACE), 120, 242

automobile industry, 183

Aydelotte, Frank, 120

Baba, Neem Karoli, 388

Babbage, Charles, 6, 18–19, 38, 39, 46, 50, 52, 56, 61, 89, 120, 134, 416, 480, 484

Ada’s first meeting with, 7–8

government attack published by, 30

limits of Analytical Engine mistaken by, 27

logarithm machine considered by, 19, 20

Lovelace given credit by, 25

Lovelace’s Analytic Engine business plan and, 30–32

programming as conceptual leap of, 33

weekly salons of, 8, 14–15, 18

Babbage, Henry, 50

BackRub, 458

Baer, Ralph, 215

Baidu, 461

ballistic missiles, 169, 181

Ballmer, Steve, 331–32, 357, 360, 453

Bally Midway, 211, 212, 215

Baran, Paul, 237, 238, 239, 240–41, 242, 245, 246, 260

packet-switching suggested by, 247

Bardeen, John, 130, 132, 145, 160, 173, 211, 480

in dispute with Shockley, 145–49, 152–53, 163

Nobel Prize won by, 164

photovoltaic effect studied by, 142–44

solid-state studied by, 140–41

surface states studied by, 142

Barger, John, 427

Bartik, Jean Jennings, see Jennings, Jean

BASIC, 316–17, 323, 325, 339, 357, 360, 370, 374, 452

for Altair, 332–36, 337, 340–43, 378

batch processing, 224

BBC, 128

Beatles, 310–11

Bechtolsheim, Andy, 463–64

Beckman, Arnold, 154–55, 165, 166

Beckman Instruments, 155

Bell, Alexander Graham, 132, 145, 477

Bell & Howell, 283

Bell Labs, 40, 47–50, 53, 61, 68, 80, 82, 101, 104, 106, 110, 122, 130, 131–34, 157, 172, 189, 221, 286, 480, 482

founding of, 132–33

Murray Hill headquarters of, 138–39

patents licensed by, 149–50

solid-state physics at, 134, 135–36, 138–41

transistor invented at, 131, 227, 414, 485

Bell System, 265

Benkler, Yochai, 444–45, 483

Berkeley Barb, 300, 301

Berners-Lee, Tim, 404, 405–14, 433, 446, 456, 474, 483

background of, 406–8

and creation of browsers, 414–18

hypertext created by, 410–11

and micropayments, 420–21

religious views of, 413–14

Bernoulli, Jacob, 27n

Bernoulli numbers, 25, 27–29, 31, 45, 107

Berry, Clifford, 59, 61

Beyer, Kurt, 91, 93

Bezos, Jeff, 464

audaciousness celebrated by, 163

Bhatnagar, Ranjit, 423

Big Brother and the Holding Company, 270, 297

Bilas, Frances, 86, 97–98

Bilton, Nick, 479

Bina, Eric, 416, 417

binary, 38–39, 49, 50, 54

in code, 76

in German codes, 78

on Z1, 53

Bitcoin, 421n

bitmapping, 364–65

Bletchley Park, 76–79, 81, 84, 94, 110, 120, 122

Blitzer, Wolf, 402–3

Bloch, Richard, 92–93, 104, 105

Blogger, 428–33, 479–80

Blogger Pro, 432

blogs, 423–33

coining of term, 427

McCarthy’s predictions of, 285–86

Blue, Al, 252

Blue Box, 346–47, 351

Board of Patent Interferences, 178

Bohr, Niels, 134

Bolt, Beranek and Newman (BBN), 221, 227, 237, 245, 252, 255, 256, 258, 385

bombe, 78

BOMIS, 437, 440

Bonneville Power Administration, 327–28

Boole, George, 48, 49

Boolean algebra, 49, 54, 58, 123, 344

Borgia, Cesare, 72

boron, 135

Bowers, Ann, 193

brains, 469, 472–73

Braiterman, Andy, 329–30, 331

Braithwaite, Richard, 128

Brand, Lois, 296

Brand, Stewart, 262, 268–72, 278, 279, 280–81, 288, 295–96, 297, 382, 387–89

Brattain, Walter, 130, 132, 134, 137–38, 173, 211, 480

in dispute with Shockley, 145–49, 152–53, 163

Nobel Prize won by, 164

photovoltaic effect studied by, 142–44

solid-state studied by, 139–41

in World War II, 138, 139

Brautigan, Richard, 9, 267, 475

Breakout, 348, 350

Bricklin, Dan, 354–55, 370, 431, 435

Brilliant, Larry, 382, 388–89

Brin, Sergey, 435, 451–55, 458

Google founded by, 458, 460, 462–64

PageRank and, 458–62

personality of, 454

Bristow, Steve, 215

British Association for the Advancement of Science, 484

Brookhaven National Lab, 203, 215

Brown, Ralph, 149–50

browsers, 414–18

bugs, 93–94

Bulletin Board System, 385–86

Burks, Arthur, 118

“Burning Chrome” (Gibson), 384

Burns, James MacGregor, 394

Bush, Vannevar, 7, 34, 37–38, 47, 49, 68, 156, 217–18, 252, 269, 409, 446, 474, 475, 480, 482, 486

background of, 218

computers augmenting human intelligence foreseen by, 263, 273, 274, 276, 363, 384, 401, 416, 446, 465, 475

linear model of innovation and, 220–21

personal computer envisioned by, 263–64, 273, 274, 276

technology promoted by, 218–20, 228

Bushnell, Nolan, 200, 207–10, 211, 212, 215, 347–48

venture capital raised by, 214

Busicom, 196–97

Byrds, 152

Byron, George Gordon, Lord, 7, 9–13, 29, 32, 468

incest of, 10–11, 16

Luddites defended by, 9, 14, 487

portrait of, 6, 12, 15–16

Byron, Lady (Annabella Milbanke), 7, 8, 10–13, 15, 32

Cailliau, Robert, 412–13, 415

Caine Mutiny, The, 165

calculating machines:

of Leibniz, 20

of Pascal, 19–20, 22

calculators, pocket, 182–83, 196, 297

calculus, 17, 37

notation of, 19

California, University of, at Santa Barbara, 252–53

Call, Charles, 82–83

Caltech, 154, 267

CamelCase, 436

capacitors, 58

CapitalLetters, 436

Carey, Frank, 356

Carlyle, Thomas, 2

Cary, Frank, 361

Case, Dan, 393–94, 396

Case, Steve, 382, 394–96, 397, 399, 401

background of, 394

Cathedral and the Bazaar, The (Raymond), 377, 438

cathode-ray tubs, 119

Catmull, Ed, 208

Caufield, Frank, 393, 396

CBS, 109, 116–17, 298–99

CB Simulator, 400

Census Bureau, U.S., 35–36, 116

Centralab, 172

central processing unit, 264

Cerf, Sigrid, 255

Cerf, Vint, 238, 239, 253, 255, 257, 259–60, 403, 481

background of, 257–58

internet created by, 258–59

nuclear attack simulated by, 250–51

CERN, 409–13, 433

Cézanne, Paul, 224

Cheatham, Thomas, 329

Cheriton, David, 463

Chicago Area Computer Hobbyists’ Exchange, 385

Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage (Byron), 10, 12

Chinese Room, 127–28, 470

Christensen, Clay, 288

Christensen, Ward, 385

Church, Alonzo, 46, 47

circuit switching, 237–38

Cisco, 450

Clark, Dave, 260–61

Clark, Jim, 208

Clark, Wes, 236, 251, 252

Clinton, Bill, 121n

Clippinger, Richard, 119

COBOL, 117, 118n, 317, 323, 339, 357

Cold War, 247

Collingwood, Charles, 117

Colossus, 76, 78, 79, 81, 122

as special-purpose machine, 79

Command and Control Research, 229

Commodore, 398

Community Memory, 301–2, 303, 383

Complex Number Calculator, 50, 64, 104

Compton, Karl, 186

CompuServe, 392, 393, 400, 419, 421

computer, 9, 80

debate over, 80–82, 84–85, 481

“Computer as a Communication Device, The” (Licklider and Taylor), 261

Computer Center Corporation (C-Cubed), 319–22

Computer Quiz, 209

Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, 472

computers (female calculators), 72, 73

Computer Space, 209, 210, 212

“Computing Machinery and Intelligence” (Turing), 124–28

Conant, James Bryant, 51, 219

condensers, 58, 66–67

conditional branching, 75

Congregationalist, 189

Congress, U.S., 220

Congress of Italian Scientists, 25

Constitution, U.S., 121n

content sharing, 467

Control Video Corporation (CVC), 393, 396–98

copper, 135

Coupling, J. J., 148

Courant, Richard, 89

Court of Customs and Patent Appeals, 179

Coyle, Bud, 167

CP/M, 357, 358

CPYNET, 384

Craigslist, 301

“Cramming More Components onto Integrated Circuits” (Moore), 183

crawlers, 447–48, 457, 460

Crocker, Stephen, 249–50, 253–55, 257, 481

Cronkite, Walter, 109, 116–17

Crossroads, 399

crowdsourcing, 261, 285

cryptology, 76

CSNET, 383

Cunningham, Ward, 433–34, 436, 439, 441

Cybernetics (Wiener), 272

Dabney, Ted, 208–9

“Daisy Bell (Bicycle Built for Two),” 311

DARPA, 228, 329

Dartmouth University, 68

AI conference at, 468

Darwin, Charles, 124

Data General, 291

Data General Nova, 209, 291

Davidoff, Monte, 333–34, 335, 337, 341

Davies, Donald, 237, 239, 242, 245, 246, 251

debugging, 93–94

decision problem, 44, 45–46, 47, 78

Deep Blue, 470, 471, 475–76

Defense Communications Agency, 241

Defense Department, U.S., 33, 220, 241, 329

ARPA of, see ARPA

de Forest, Lee, 154

Delphi, 401

Democratic National Convention, 1968, 278

De Morgan, Augustus, 17, 26

de Prony, Gaspard, 20

Descartes, René, 122

Difference Engine, 8–9, 13, 20, 21, 21, 25–26, 90, 120, 480

Aikens version of, 50–52, 86, 90

Differential Analyzer, 34, 37–38, 47, 68, 72, 114, 217, 218

differential equations, 37, 73

digital, analog vs., 36–40, 469, 472

Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), 186, 203, 205, 207, 264, 319–22, 329, 345, 354, 355, 356

diode, 163, 164

Discourse on the Method (Descartes), 122

Domain Awareness System, 472

Dompier, Steve, 310–11

Don Juan (Byron), 11

Doriot, Georges, 186

Dorsey, Jack, 479–80

DOS, 367

Dr. Dobb’s Journal, 372

Drucker, Peter, 192

Duke University, 386

Dummer, Geoffrey, 180

Dynabook, 288–91, 292

Dyson, Freeman, 121

Dyson, George, 103, 108, 120, 121

Earnest, Les, 251, 281

Easy Writer, 356

Eckert, J. Presper, 69, 70–72, 74–75, 81, 82, 83–84, 88, 94, 105, 106, 109, 110, 119, 134, 137, 211, 238, 481

patents sought by, 116, 177

and public display of ENIAC, 114

and storage of programs in ENIAC, 100–101, 106

von Neumann accused of stealing ideas by, 111–12

Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation, 116–17

Edison, Thomas, 55, 449

EDSAC, 120

EDVAC, 108, 110, 111–12, 116

Edwards, Dan, 200, 206

Edwards, Elwood, 399–400

Einstein, Albert, 5, 43, 46, 68, 102, 140, 443

Eisenhower, Dwight, 79, 116, 228–29, 304, 436, 482

electrical circuits, 39, 63, 71

needed to break German codes, 78, 79

electricity, 140

Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test, The (Wolfe), 270, 281

Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Calculator, see EDVAC

Electronic Engineering Times, 180

Electronic News, 179, 199

Electronics, 183

Electronics Magazine, 325

electrons, 134, 136, 137, 141

Elkind, Jerry, 290, 291

Elwell, Cyril, 450

email, 384–85

Emsworth, Lord, 445

Encyclopedia Britannica, 444

Engelbart, Doug, 252, 272–76, 279, 280–81, 282, 283, 290, 293, 294, 297, 308, 354, 363, 388, 416, 474, 475, 478, 480, 486

on human-machine interaction, 272–74, 276–78, 302, 363, 384, 401, 455

English, Bill, 276–77, 280, 290

ENIAC, 69, 74, 79, 86, 87, 106, 131, 481, 482

decimal system used by, 75

as first modern computer, 81, 82

hydrogen bomb equations worked out by, 112–13

patents for work on, 82, 83, 111–12, 116

public unveiling of, 112–16

speed of, 94, 108

storage of programs in, 100–101, 106

update of, 119–20

women as programmers of, 95–100, 117

Enigma, 77–78

Enlightenment, 479

Enquire, 409

Enquire Within Upon Everything, 408, 409, 410, 414

Entscheidungsproblem, 44, 45–46, 47, 78

Esquire, 157, 159, 346

Estridge, Don, 356

Eternal September, 401, 403

Ethernet, 256, 387n, 463

Euclidean geometry, 14

Eudora, 450

Evans, David, 208, 283

Evans, Kent, 319, 323–25

EvHead, 429

Excite, 227, 462

Expensive Planetarium, 206

Eyser, George, 470

Facebook, 156, 260, 301, 485

Fairchild, Sherman, 168, 185

Fairchild Camera and Instrument, 168, 184, 186

Fairchild Semiconductor, 158, 177–79, 193, 199

formation of, 168–69, 171

microchips sold to weapons makers by, 181–82

Noyce’s resignation from, 184–85

Farnsworth, Philo, 71

Federal Communications Commission, 387

Felsenstein, Lee, 266, 272, 292, 295, 298–300, 301–3, 304, 310, 341, 353, 387

Ferranti, 121

Ferranti Mark I, 406

Ferrucci, David, 470

Feynman, Richard, 452

file sharing, 264

Filo, David, 447–48

Firefox, 381, 482, 483

“First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC, by John von Neumann,” 111–12

Fischer, Dave, 401

Flowers, Tommy, 39, 78, 79, 81

influence of, 82

“Fool on the Hill, The,” 310–11

formal systems of mathematics, 43

Fortran, 117, 317, 339, 357

Fortune, 168, 317, 319

Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus (Shelley), 12, 29, 468

Franklin, Benjamin, 4, 71, 378, 481

Frankston, Bob, 355

Free Software Foundation, 379

Free Speech Movement, 265, 299–300, 303

French, Gordon, 304, 344

French Revolution, 3

Fuchs, Klaus, 113, 242

Fulghum, Robert, 325

Fuller, Buckminster, 267, 271, 272, 295

Fylstra, Dan, 355–56

Galaxy Games, 210

Gale, Grant, 159

Galison, Peter, 48

GameLine, 393–94, 396

Garcia, Jerry, 266

Gates, Bill, 4, 197, 274, 309, 311, 312, 313, 345, 347, 354, 357, 367, 370, 391, 399, 406, 416, 485

Allen’s disputes with, 322–23, 328, 338–39, 352, 361

background of, 313–18

BASIC for Altair designed by, 332–36, 337

BASIC learned by, 316–17

belief of, in future of personal computer, 329–30

copyright issues and, 341–43, 351, 378

8008 language written by, 325–27

electronic grid work of, 327–28

Evans’s death and, 324, 325

at Harvard, 328–32, 336

innovator personality of, 338–40

Jobs’s dispute with, 368–69

Lakeside Programming Group formed by, 318–27

operating system and, 358–60, 361–62

payroll program written by, 322–23, 338

PDP-10 work of, 319–21

programming’s importance seen by, 118

on reverse-engineering brain, 473

Gates, Mary, 361

Gatlinburg conference, 237, 238, 242

General Electric (GE), 116, 211

General Post Office, 242

general-purpose machines, 26–27, 33, 39, 40, 46, 87, 119, 326–27, 406, 467

Engelbert’s foreseeing of, 276

see also memex

General Relativity, 5, 43

geometry, 17

germanium, 135

Germany, codes of, 78, 79, 81

Gertner, Jon, 134, 138

Gibson, William, 384

Gingrich, Newt, 403

Ginsberg, Allen, 299

GNU, 372–73

GNU/Linux, 377, 378, 379, 441, 482, 483

Go, 210

Gödel, Escher, Bach (Hofstadter), 471

Gödel, Kurt, 43–44, 45, 46, 102, 120

gold, 177–78

Goldberg, Adele, 364

Goldstine, Adele, 73, 96–97, 118, 119

Goldstine, Herman, 69, 73–74, 96, 109, 110–11, 113, 118, 119

von Neumann’s first meeting with, 105–6

Google, 227, 259, 450, 460–65, 471–72, 482, 486

creation of, 458, 460, 462–64

lawsuits of, 112

page ranks of, 482

self-driving cars of, 456

Google Glass, 259–60

Gopher, 415

Gore, Al, 260, 400–403

Gore Act (1991), 402, 416, 423

government funding, 73–74, 482, 484

see also ARPANET

Graetz, Martin, 204, 205

Gran Trak 10, 348

graphic user interface, 363–64, 367–69

Grateful Dead, 266, 270, 389

“Great Conversation, The” (Cerf), 255

Greeks, 72

Greening of America, The (Reich), 267

Greig, Woronzow, 15

Grinnell College, 157, 159, 188

Grove, Andy, 170, 190–92, 193, 197, 481

management techniques of, 194, 195

hackers, 201, 202, 203–7, 254, 268, 299, 378, 504

Hackers (Levy), 202, 298

Hafner, Katie, 245, 260, 389

Haggerty, Pat, 149–51, 168, 173

idea for calculator of, 182–83

Hall, Justin, 404, 422–27, 429, 438, 446, 458

halting problem, 45

Hambrecht & Quist, 393, 396

harmonic synthesizer, 37

Hartree, Douglas, 119

Harvard University, 40, 50–52, 53, 104–5, 106, 222, 271, 328–29

Hayden, Stone & Co., 167, 188

Hayes Smartmodem, 387

Heart, Frank, 252

“Heath Robinson,” 79

Heinlein, Robert, 257, 299

Hells Angel, 270

Hennessy, John, 462

Herschel, John, 19

Hertzfeld, Andy, 368

Herzfeld, Charles, 232–33, 234, 249

Hewlett, William, 154, 156, 189, 464

Hewlett-Packard, 156, 189, 199, 344, 345, 348, 351, 450

High Performance Computing Act (1991), 402, 416

Higinbotham, William, 215

Hilbert, David, 43, 44, 45, 47, 78, 103

Hiltzik, Michael, 290

Hingham Institute Study Group, 205

hippies, 266–67, 268, 272, 305, 309

Hiroshima, 103n

His Majesty’s Government Code and Cypher School, 77

Hitler, Adolf, 78, 79

Hoddeson, Lillian, 310

Hodges, Andrew, 40–41

Hoefler, Don, 199

Hoerni, Jean, 162, 174–75, 176, 184

Hoff, Ted, 193, 196–99

Hofstadter, Douglas, 471

Holberton, Betty Snyder, see Snyder, Betty

Hollerith, Herman, 35–36, 478

Homebrew Computer Club, 304, 310–11, 340, 342, 344, 350, 351, 370, 407, 483–84

Home Terminal Club, 286

Honeywell, 82–83, 121, 330, 336

Hoover Dam, 181

Hopper, Grace, 2, 28, 86, 88–95, 104, 117, 323, 329

communication skills of, 88–89, 90

on ENIAC’s lack of programmability, 95

hired at Eckert-Mauchley, 117–18

subroutines perfected by, 93

Hopper, Vincent, 88

HotWired, 420

HotWired.com, 425–26

Hourihan, Meg, 429–30

House, David, 184

House of Lords, 9, 14

Huffington, Arianna, 427

Huffington Post, 427

Human Brain Project, 473

Human-Computer Interaction Group, 455

human-machine interaction, 4–5, 225–26, 227–28, 229, 231, 272–74, 276–78, 302, 363, 384, 401, 449–50, 455–56, 459, 464–65, 474–79

Hush-A-Phone case, 386–87

hydrogen bomb, 112–13, 238

HyperCard, 434

hypertext, 264, 410–13

limitation of, 456–57

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), 411, 419, 426, 429

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), 411

IAS Machine, 120

IBM, 53, 64, 82, 118, 121, 168, 197, 251, 304, 353–54, 356–63, 398–99, 470–71, 473, 475, 477, 478

dress code at, 215

founding of, 36

Gates’s deal with, 337

Jobs’s criticism of, 362–63

Mark I history of, 2, 91

Mark I of, 2, 51–52, 81, 89–90

IBM 704, 468

IBM 1401, 282–83

Idea Factory, The (Gertner), 134

Illich, Ivan, 302–3, 304

imitation game, 124–28

incompleteness theorem, 43–44, 45

indeterminacy, 43

individualism, 265

Industrial Revolution, 3, 7, 9, 18, 479

two grand concepts of, 32–33

Infocast, 392

Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO), 229, 231, 233–34, 248, 286–87

Information Sciences, Inc. (ISI), 322–23, 324

Infoseek, 227

innovation, 260, 486–88

assembly lines in, 32–33

bureaucracies vs., 240–41

and corporate culture, 189, 217

patents and, 215

social atmosphere for, 2

stages of, 150

synergy and, 183

teamwork and, 1, 84, 85, 91–92, 108, 110, 246, 260, 479–86

Institute for Advanced Study, 73, 77, 102, 118

Institute of Radio Engineers, 174

integrated circuit, see microchips

Integrated Electronics Corp, see Intel

Intel, 170, 187–99, 265, 280, 350, 351, 482

culture of, 189–95, 235, 481, 484–85

employees empowered at, 193–95

initial investments in, 187–88, 213

microprocessor of, 196–99

Intel 8008 microprocessor, 325–26

Intel 8080 microprocessor, 305, 306, 308

Interface Message Processors (IMPs), 237, 251–52, 253, 255, 256

see also routers

Internatioal Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 449

Internet, 9, 72, 217–61, 383–403, 482

ARPANET as precursor to, 208; see also ARPANET

built by collaboration, 4–5

built to facilitate collaboration, 2–3

creation of, 257, 258–59

as decentralized, 250

legislation on, 400–403

nuclear weapons and, 247–51

personal computers and, 4

Internet Engineering Task Force, 260–61, 411, 414

Internet Protocol (IP), 259, 293

interstate highway program, 402

iOS, 381

Iowa State, 55, 56, 57, 60, 61, 65, 68, 81, 481

iPad 2, 486–87