Текст книги "The Innovators: How a Group of Inventors, Hackers, Geniuses, and Geeks Created the Digital Revolution"

Автор книги: Walter Isaacson

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53. Jean Jennings Bartik and Betty Snyder Holberton oral history, Smithsonian, Apr. 27, 1973.

54. McCartney, ENIAC, 116.

55. Jean Jennings Bartik and Betty Snyder Holberton oral history, Smithsonian, Apr. 27, 1973.

56. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 53.

57. Burks, Who Invented the Computer?, 161; Norman Macrae, John von Neumann (American Mathematical Society, 1992), 281.

58. Ritchie, The Computer Pioneers, 178.

59. Presper Eckert oral history, conducted by Nancy Stern, Charles Babbage Institute, Oct. 28, 1977; Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 1952.

60. John von Neumann, “First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC,” U.S. Army Ordnance Department and the University of Pennsylvania, June 30, 1945. The report is available at http://www.virtualtravelog.net/wp/wp-content/media/2003-08-TheFirstDraft.pdf.

61. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 1957. See also Aspray, John von Neumann and the Origins of Modern Computing.

62. Eckert oral history, Charles Babbage Institute. See also McCartney, ENIAC, 125, quoting Eckert: “We were clearly suckered by John von Neumann, who succeeded in some circles at getting my ideas called the ‘von Neumann architecture.’ ”

63. Jennings Bartik, Pioneer Programmer, 518.

64. Charles Duhigg and Steve Lohr, “The Patent, Used as a Sword,” New York Times, Oct. 7, 2012.

65. McCartney, ENIAC, 103.

66. C. Dianne Martin, “ENIAC: The Press Conference That Shook the World,” IEEE Technology and Society, Dec. 1995.

67. Jennings Bartik, Pioneer Programmer, 1878.

68. Fritz, “The Women of ENIAC.”

69. Jennings Bartik, Pioneer Programmer, 1939.

70. Jean Jennings Bartik and Betty Snyder Holberton oral history, Smithsonian, Apr. 27, 1973.

71. Jennings Bartik, Pioneer Programmer, 672, 1964, 1995, 1959.

72. T. R Kennedy, “Electronic Computer Flashes Answers,” New York Times, Feb. 15, 1946.

73. McCartney, ENIAC, 107.

74. Jennings Bartik, Pioneer Programmer, 2026, 2007.

75. Jean Jennings Bartik oral history, Computer History Museum.

76. McCartney, ENIAC, 132.

77. Steven Henn, “The Night a Computer Predicted the Next President,” NPR, Oct. 31, 2012; Alex Bochannek, “Have You Got a Prediction for Us, UNIVAC?” Computer History Museum, http://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/have-you-got-a-prediction-for-us-univac/. Some reports say that CBS did not air the Eisenhower prediction because preelection polls had predicted that Stevenson would win. This is not true; polls had predicted an Eisenhower win.

78. Hopper oral history, Computer History Museum, Dec. 1980.

79. Beyer, Grace Hopper, 277.

80. Von Neumann to Stanley Frankel, Oct. 29, 1946; Joel Shurkin, Engines of the Mind (Washington Square Press, 1984), 204; Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 1980; Stern, “John von Neumann’s Influence on Electronic Digital Computing.”

81. Eckert oral history, Charles Babbage Institute.

82. Goldstine, The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann, 5077.

83. Crispin Rope, “ENIAC as a Stored-Program Computer: A New Look at the Old Records,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Oct. 2007; Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 4429.

84. Fritz, “The Women of ENIAC.”

85. Maurice Wilkes, “How Babbage’s Dream Came True,” Nature, Oct. 1975.

86. Hodges, Alan Turing, 10622.

87. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 2024. See also Goldstine, The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann, 5376.

88. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 6092.

89. Hodges, Alan Turing, 6972.

90. Alan Turing, “Lecture to the London Mathematical Society,” Feb. 20, 1947, available at http://www.turingarchive.org/; Hodges, Alan Turing, 9687.

91. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 5921.

92. Geoffrey Jefferson, “The Mind of Mechanical Man,” Lister Oration, June 9, 1949, Turing Archive, http://www.turingarchive.org/browse.php/B/44.

93. Hodges, Alan Turing, 10983.

94. For an online version, see http://loebner.net/Prizef/TuringArticle.html.

95. John Searle, “Minds, Brains and Programs,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1980. See also “The Chinese Room Argument,” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-room/.

96. Hodges, Alan Turing, 11305; Max Newman, “Alan Turing, An Appreciation,” the Manchester Guardian, June 11, 1954.

97. M. H. A. Newman, Alan M. Turing, Sir Geoffrey Jefferson, and R. B. Braithwaite, “Can Automatic Calculating Machines Be Said to Think?” 1952 BBC broadcast, reprinted in Stuart Shieber, editor, The Turing Test: Verbal Behavior as the Hallmark of Intelligence (MIT, 2004); Hodges, Alan Turing, 12120.

98. Hodges, Alan Turing, 12069.

99. Hodges, Alan Turing, 12404. For discussions of Turing’s suicide and character, see Robin Gandy, unpublished obituary of Alan Turing for the Times, and other items in the Turing Archives, http://www.turingarchive.org/. His mother, Sara, liked to believe that Turing’s suicide was actually an accident caused when he was using cyanide to gold-plate a spoon. She sent to his archive a spoon she found in his lab with her note, “This is the spoon which I found in Alan Turing’s laboratory. It is similar to the one which he gold-plated himself. It seems quite probable he was intending to gold-plate this one using cyanide of potassium of his own manufacture.” Exhibit AMT/A/12, Turing Archive, http://www.turingarchive.org/browse.php/A/12.

CHAPTER FOUR: THE TRANSISTOR

1. Jon Gertner, The Idea Factory: Bell Labs and the Great Age of American Innovation (Penguin, 2012; locations refer to the Kindle edition). In addition to specific citations below, sources for this section include Joel Shurkin, Broken Genius: The Rise and Fall of William Shockley (Macmillan, 2006; locations refer to the Kindle edition); Lillian Hoddeson and Vicki Daitch, True Genius: The Life and Science of John Bardeen (National Academies, 2002); Michael Riordan and Lillian Hoddeson, Crystal Fire: The Invention of the Transistor and the Birth of the Information Age (Norton, 1998); William Shockley, “The Invention of the Transistor—An Example of Creative-Failure Methodology,” National Bureau of Standards Special Publication, May 1974, 47–89; William Shockley, “The Path to the Conception of the Junction Transistor,” IEEE Transactions of Electron Device, July 1976; David Pines, “John Bardeen,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Sept. 2009; “Special Issue: John Bardeen,” Physics Today, Apr. 1992, with remembrances by seven of his colleagues; John Bardeen, “Semiconductor Research Leading to the Point Contact Transistor,” Nobel Prize lecture, Dec. 11, 1956; John Bardeen, “Walter Houser Brattain: A Biographical Memoir,” National Academy of Sciences, 1994; Transistorized!, PBS, transcripts and interviews, 1999, http://www.pbs.org/transistor/index.html; William Shockley oral history, American Institute of Physics (AIP), Sept. 10, 1974; Oral History of Shockley Semiconductor, Computer History Museum, Feb. 27, 2006; John Bardeen oral history, AIP, May 12, 1977; Walter Brattain oral history, AIP, Jan. 1964.

2. Gertner, The Idea Factory, 2255.

3. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 2547.

4. John Pierce, “Mervin Joe Kelly: 1894–1971,” National Academy of Sciences, Biographical Memoirs, 1975, http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/kelly-mervin.pdf; Gertner, The Idea Factory, 2267.

5. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 178.

6. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 231.

7. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 929; Lillian Hoddeson, “The Discovery of the Point-Contact Transistor,” Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 12, no. 1 (1981): 76.

8. John Pierce interview, Transistorized!, PBS, 1999.

9. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 935; Shockley, “The Path to the Conception of the Junction Transistor.”

10. Gertner, The Idea Factory, 1022.

11. Gertner, The Idea Factory, 1266.

12. Gertner, The Idea Factory, 1336.

13. Brattain oral history, AIP.

14. Pines, “John Bardeen.”

15. Bardeen, “Walter Houser Brattain.”

16. Brattain oral history, AIP.

17. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 126.

18. Shockley, “The Path to the Conception of the Junction Transistor”; Michael Riordan, “The Lost History of the Transistor,” IEEE Spectrum, May 2004.

19. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 121.

20. Brattain oral history, AIP.

21. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 131.

22. Bardeen, “Semiconductor Research Leading to the Point Contact Transistor,” Nobel Prize lecture.

23. Brattain oral history, AIP.

24. Brattain oral history, AIP.

25. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 1876.

26. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 4, 137.

27. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 139.

28. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 1934.

29. Shockley, “The Path to the Conception of the Junction Transistor.”

30. Brattain oral history, AIP.

31. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 148.

32. Shockley, “The Path to the Conception of the Junction Transistor.”

33. Shockley, “The Path to the Conception of the Junction Transistor.”

34. Shockley, “The Invention of the Transistor”; Gertner, The Idea Factory, 1717.

35. Brattain interview, “Naming the Transistor,” PBS, 1999; Pierce interview, PBS, 1999.

36. Mervin Kelly, “The First Five Years of the Transistor,” Bell Telephone magazine, Summer 1953.

37. Nick Holonyak oral history, AIP, Mar. 23, 2005.

38. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 207; Mark Burgess, “Early Semiconductor History of Texas Instruments,” https://sites.google.com/site/transistorhistory/Home/us-semiconductor-manufacturers/ti.

39. Gordon Teal talk, “Announcing the Transistor,” Texas Instruments strategic planning conference, Mar. 17, 1980.

40. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 211; Regency TR1 manual, http://www.regencytr1.com/images/Owners%20Manual%20-%20TR-1G.pdf.

41. T. R. Reid, The Chip (Simon & Schuster, 1984; locations refer to the Kindle edition), 2347.

42. Regency trivia page, http://www.regencytr1.com/TRivia_CORNER.html.

43. Brattain oral history, AIP.

44. John Bardeen to Mervin Kelly, May 25, 1951; Ronald Kessler, “Absent at the Creation,” Washington Post magazine, Apr. 6, 1997; Pines, “John Bardeen.”

45. Gertner, The Idea Factory, 3059; Shurkin, Broken Genius, 2579.

46. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 231 and passim.

47. Arnold Thackray and Minor Myers, Arnold O. Beckman: One Hundred Years of Excellence, vol. 1 (Chemical Heritage Foundation, 2000), 6.

48. Walter Isaacson, Steve Jobs (Simon & Schuster, 2011), 9.

49. Sources for the passages on Silicon Valley include Leslie Berlin’s The Man Behind the Microchip: Robert Noyce and the Invention of Silicon Valley (Oxford, 2005; locations refer to the Kindle edition), 1332 and passim. Berlin is the project historian for the Silicon Valley Archives at Stanford and is writing a book on the rise of Silicon Valley. Also: Rebecca Lowen, Creating the Cold War University: The Transformation of Stanford (University of California, 1997); Michael Malone, The Intel Trinity (HarperBusiness, 2014), Infinite Loop (Doubleday, 1999), The Big Score: The Billion Dollar Story of Silicon Valley (Doubleday, 1985), The Valley of Heart’s Delight: A Silicon Valley Notebook, 1963–2001 (Wiley, 2002), Bill and Dave (Portfolio, 2007); Christophe Lécuyer, Making Silicon Valley (MIT, 2007); C. Stewart Gillmore, Fred Terman at Stanford: Building a Discipline, a University, and Silicon Valley (Stanford, 2004); Margaret Pugh O’Mara, Cities of Knowledge: Cold War Science and the Search for the Next Silicon Valley (Princeton, 2005); Thomas Heinrich, “Cold War Armory: Military Contracting in Silicon Valley,” Enterprise & Society, June 1, 2002; Steve Blank, “The Secret History of Silicon Valley,” http://steveblank.com/secret-history/.

50. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 1246; Reid, The Chip, 1239. In addition to these two sources and those cited below, the section draws on my interviews with Gordon Moore and Andy Grove; Shurkin, Broken Genius; Michael Malone, The Intel Trinity (Harpers, 2014); Tom Wolfe, “The Tinkerings of Robert Noyce,” Esquire, Dec. 1983; Bo Lojek, History of Semiconductor Engineering (Springer, 2007); notebooks and items in the Computer History Museum; Robert Noyce oral history, conducted by Michael F. Wolff, IEEE History Center, Sept. 19, 1975; Gordon Moore oral history, conducted by Michael F. Wolff, IEEE History Center, Sept. 19, 1975; Gordon Moore oral history, conducted by Daniel Morrow, Computerworld Honors Program, Mar. 28, 2000; Gordon Moore and Jay Last oral history, conducted by David Brock and Christophe Lécuyer, Chemical Heritage Foundation, Jan. 20, 2006; Gordon Moore oral history, conducted by Craig Addison, SEMI, Jan. 25, 2008; Gordon Moore interview, conducted by Jill Wolfson and Teo Cervantes, San Jose Mercury News, Jan. 26, 1997; Gordon Moore, “Intel: Memories and the Microprocessor,” Daedalus, Spring 1966.

51. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 2980, from Fred Warshorfsky, The Chip War (Scribner’s Sons, 1989).

52. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 276.

53. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 432, 434.

54. Wolfe, “The Tinkerings of Robert Noyce.”

55. Robert Noyce interview, “Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013; Malone, The Big Score, 74.

56. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 552; Malone, Intel Trinity, 81.

57. Leslie Berlin writes that the transistors did not arrive until 1950, after Noyce graduated: “[Bell’s research head] Buckley did not have any devices to spare, but he did send Gale copies of several technical monographs that Bell Labs had written on the transistor. These monographs formed the basis of Noyce’s initial exposure to the device. No textbooks addressed transistors, and (although prevailing mythology claims otherwise) Bell Labs did not ship Gale a transistor until after Noyce graduated” (The Man Behind the Microchip, 650). Berlin cites as her source for this a March 1984 letter written by Professor Gale to a friend; Berlin writes in an endnote, “Gale mentions an ‘attached original shipping invoice [for the transistors, sent from Bardeen to Gale] dated March 6, 1950’ (now lost).” Berlin’s reporting conflicts with Noyce’s recollections. Noyce’s quote that “Grant Gale got hold of one of the first point contact transistors . . . during my junior year” is from Noyce’s September 1975 IEEE History Center oral history, cited above. Tom Wolfe’s Esquire profile of Noyce, based on his visits with Noyce, reports, “By the fall of 1948 Gale had obtained two of the first transistors ever made, and he presented the first academic instruction in solid-state electronics available anywhere in the world, for the benefit of the eighteen students [including Noyce] majoring in physics at Grinnell College” (“The Tinkerings of Robert Noyce”). Reid, The Chip, 1226, based on his 1982 interviews with Robert Noyce, writes, “Gale had been a classmate of John Bardeen in the engineering school at the University of Wisconsin, and thus he was able to obtain one of the first transistors and demonstrate it to his students. It was not a lecture the student was to forget. ‘It hit me like the atom bomb,’ Noyce recalled forty years later.” Bardeen and other engineers at Bell Labs did send out many transistor samples to academic institutions that requested them beginning in July 1948.

58. Reid, The Chip, 1266; Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 1411.

59. Gordon Moore interview, “Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.

60. Author’s interview with Gordon Moore.

61. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 239.

62. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 1469.

63. Jay Last interview, “Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.

64. Malone, Intel Trinity, 107.

65. Jay Last interview, “Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013; Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 1649; Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 246.

66. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 1641.

67. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 3118.

68. Author’s interview with Gordon Moore.

69. Arnold Beckman oral history, conducted by Jeffrey L. Sturchio and Arnold Thackray, Chemical Heritage Foundation, July 23, 1985.

70. Gordon Moore and Jay Last interviews, “Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.

71. Regis McKenna and Michael Malone interviews, “Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.

72. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 1852; author’s interview with Arthur Rock.

73. Author’s interview with Arthur Rock.

74. Arthur Rock interview, “Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013; author’s interview and papers provided to me by Arthur Rock.

75. “Multifarious Sherman Fairchild,” Fortune, May 1960; “Yankee Tinkerer” (cover story on Sherman Fairchild), Time, July 25, 1960.

CHAPTER FIVE: THE MICROCHIP

1. In addition to the sources cited below, this section draws from Jack Kilby, “Turning Potentials into Realities,” Nobel Prize lecture, Dec. 8, 2000; Jack Kilby, “Invention of the Integrated Circuit,” IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, July 1976; T. R. Reid, The Chip (Simon & Schuster, 1984; locations refer to the Kindle edition).

2. Jack Kilby, biographical essay, Nobel Prize organization, 2000.

3. Reid, The Chip, 954.

4. Reid, The Chip, 921.

5. Reid, The Chip, 1138.

6. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 2386. The Fairchild notebooks are being preserved and are on display at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California.

7. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 2515.

8. Robert Noyce oral history, IEEE.

9. Reid, The Chip, 1336; Robert Noyce oral history, IEEE.

10. Robert Noyce journal entry, Jan. 23, 1959, Computer History Museum, Mountain View, California. For a picture of the page, see http://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/the-relics-of-st-bob/.

11. J. S. Kilby, “Capacitor for Miniature Electronic Circuits or the Like,” patent application US 3434015 A, Feb. 6, 1959; Reid, The Chip, 1464.

12. R. N. Noyce, “Semiconductor Device-and-Lead Structure,” patent application US 2981877 A, July 30, 1959; Reid, The Chip, 1440.

13. Reid, The Chip, 1611 and passim.

14. Noyce v. Kilby, U.S. Court of Customs and Patent Appeals, Nov. 6, 1969.

15. Reid, The Chip, 1648.

16. Jack Kilby oral history, conducted by Arthur L. Norberg, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, June 21, 1984.

17. Craig Matsumoto, “The Quiet Jack Kilby,” Valley Wonk column, Heavy Reading, June 23, 2005.

18. Reid, The Chip, 3755, 3775; Jack Kilby, Nobel Prize lecture, Dec. 8, 2000.

19. Paul Ceruzzi, A History of Modern Computing (MIT Press, 1998), 187.

20. Ceruzzi, A History of Modern Computing, chapter 6.

21. Reid, The Chip, 2363, 2443.

22. Robert Noyce, “Microelectronics,” Scientific American, Sept. 1977.

23. Gordon Moore, “Cramming More Components onto Integrated Circuits,” Electronics, Apr. 1965.

24. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 3177.

25. Gordon Moore interview, “American Experience: Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.

26. Author’s interview with Gordon Moore.

27. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 3529.

28. Author’s interview with Arthur Rock.

29. John Wilson, The New Venturers (Addison-Wesley, 1985), chapter 2.

30. Author’s interview with Arthur Rock; David Kaplan, The Silicon Boys (Morrow, 1999), 165 and passim.

31. Author’s interview with Arthur Rock.

32. Author’s interview with Arthur Rock.

33. Malone, Intel Trinity, 4, 8.

34. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 4393.

35. Andrew Grove, Swimming Across (Grand Central, 2001), 2. This section is also based on author’s interviews and conversations with Grove over the years and on Joshua Ramo, “Man of the Year: A Survivor’s Tale,” Time, Dec. 29, 1997; Richard Tedlow, Andy Grove (Portfolio, 2006).

36. Tedlow, Andy Grove, 92.

37. Tedlow, Andy Grove, 96.

38. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 129.

39. Andrew Grove interview, “American Experience: Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.

40. Tedlow, Andy Grove, 74; Andy Grove oral history conducted by Arnold Thackray and David C. Brock, July 14 and Sept. 1, 2004, Chemical Heritage Foundation.

41. Author’s interview with Arthur Rock.

42. Michael Malone interview, “American Experience: Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.

43. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 4400.

44. Ann Bowers interview, “American Experience: Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.

45. Ted Hoff interview, “American Experience: Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.

46. Wolfe, “The Tinkerings of Robert Noyce.”

47. Malone, Intel Trinity, 115.

48. Author’s interview with Gordon Moore.

49. Malone, Intel Trinity, 130.

50. Ann Bowers interview, “American Experience”; author’s interview with Ann Bowers.

51. Reid, The Chip, 140; Malone, Holy Trinity, 148.

52. Ted Hoff interview, “American Experience: Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.

53. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 4329.

54. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 4720.

55. Don Hoefler, “Silicon Valley USA,” Electronic News, Jan. 11, 1971.

CHAPTER SIX: VIDEO GAMES

1. Steven Levy, Hackers (Anchor/Doubleday, 1984; locations refer to the twenty-fifth anniversary reissue, O’Reilly, 2010), 28. In this classic and influential book, which begins with a detailed account of MIT’s Tech Model Railroad Club, Levy describes a “hacker ethic” that includes the following: “Access to computers—and anything else which might teach you about the way the world works—should be unlimited and total. Always yield to the Hands-On Imperative!” In addition to Levy’s book and specific sources cited below, sources for this chapter include author’s interviews with Steve Russell and Stewart Brand; Steve Russell oral history, conducted by Al Kossow, Aug. 9, 2008, Computer History Museum; J. Martin Graetz, “The Origin of Spacewar,” Creative Computing, Aug. 1981; Stewart Brand, “Spacewar,” Rolling Stone, Dec. 7, 1972.

2. Levy, Hackers, 7.

3. “Definition of Hackers,” website of the Tech Model Railroad Club, http://tmrc.mit.edu/hackers-ref.html.

4. Brand, “Spacewar.”

5. Graetz, “The Origin of Spacewar.”

6. Steve Russell oral history, Computer History Museum; Graetz, “The Origin of Spacewar.”

7. Author’s interview with Steve Russell.

8. Graetz, “The Origin of Spacewar.”

9. Brand, “Spacewar.”

10. Author’s interview with Steve Russell.

11. Sources for this section include author’s interviews with Nolan Bushnell, Al Alcorn, Steve Jobs (for previous book), and Steve Wozniak; Tristan Donovan, Replay: The Story of Video Games (Yellow Ant, 2010; locations refer to the Kindle edition); Steven Kent, The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokemon (Three Rivers, 2001); Scott Cohen, Zap! The Rise and Fall of Atari (McGraw-Hill, 1984); Henry Lowood, “Videogames in Computer Space: The Complex History of Pong,” IEEE Annals, July 2009; John Markoff, What the Dormouse Said (Viking, 2005, locations refer to the Kindle edition); Al Alcorn interview, Retro Gaming Roundup, May 2011; Al Alcorn interview, conducted by Cam Shea, IGN, Mar. 10, 2008.

12. Kent, The Ultimate History of Video Games, 12.

13. Author’s interview with Nolan Bushnell.

14. Nolan Bushnell talk to young entrepreneurs, Los Angeles, May 17, 2013 (author’s notes).

15. Donovan, Replay, 429.

16. Donovan, Replay, 439.

17. Eddie Adlum, quoted in Kent, The Ultimate History of Video Games, 42.

18. Kent, The Ultimate History of Video Games, 45.

19. Author’s interview with Nolan Bushnell.

20. Author’s interview with Nolan Bushnell.

21. Author’s interview with Al Alcorn.

22. Donovan, Replay, 520.

23. Author’s interviews with Nolan Bushnell and Al Alcorn. This tale is told in much the same way in other sources, often with a few embellishments.

24. Author’s interview with Nolan Bushnell.

25. Nolan Bushnell talk to young entrepreneurs, Los Angeles, May 17, 2013.

26. Author’s interview with Nolan Bushnell.

27. Donovan, Replay, 664.

28. Author’s interview with Nolan Bushnell.

CHAPTER SEVEN: THE INTERNET

1. Sources for Vannevar Bush include Vannevar Bush, Pieces of the Action (Morrow, 1970); Pascal Zachary, Endless Frontier: Vannevar Bush, Engineer of the American Century (MIT, 1999); “Yankee Scientist,” Time cover story, Apr. 3, 1944; Jerome Weisner, “Vannevar Bush: A Biographical Memoir,” National Academy of Sciences, 1979; James Nyce and Paul Kahn, editors, From Memex to Hypertext: Vannevar Bush and the Mind’s Machine (Academic Press, 1992); Jennet Conant, Tuxedo Park (Simon & Schuster, 2002); Vannevar Bush oral history, American Institute of Physics, 1964.

2. Weisner, “Vannevar Bush.”

3. Zachary, Endless Frontier, 23.

4. Time, Apr. 3, 1944.

5. Time, Apr. 3, 1944.

6. Bush, Pieces of the Action, 41.

7. Weisner, “Vannevar Bush.”

8. Vannevar Bush, Science, the Endless Frontier (National Science Foundation, July 1945), vii.

9. Bush, Science, 10.

10. Bush, Pieces of the Action, 65.

11. Joseph V. Kennedy, “The Sources and Uses of U.S. Science Funding,” The New Atlantis, Summer 2012.

12. Mitchell Waldrop, The Dream Machine: J. C. R. Licklider and the Revolution That Made Computing Personal (Penguin, 2001), 470. Other sources for this section include author’s interviews with Tracy Licklider (son), Larry Roberts, and Bob Taylor; Katie Hafner and Matthew Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet (Simon & Schuster, 1998); J. C. R. Licklider oral history, conducted by William Aspray and Arthur Norberg, Oct. 28, 1988, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota; J. C. R. Licklider interview, conducted by James Pelkey, “A History of Computer Communications,” June 28, 1988 (Pelkey’s material is only online, http://www.historyofcomputercommunications.info/index.html); Robert M. Fano, Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider 1915–1990, a Biographical Memoir (National Academies Press, 1998).

13. Licklider oral history, Charles Babbage Institute.

14. Norbert Wiener, “A Scientist’s Dilemma in a Materialistic World” (1957), in Collected Works, vol. 4 (MIT, 1984), 709.

15. Author’s interview with Tracy Licklider.

16. Author’s interview with Tracy Licklider.

17. Waldrop, The Dream Machine, 237.

18. Bob Taylor, “In Memoriam: J. C. R. Licklider,” Aug. 7, 1990, Digital Equipment Corporation publication.

19. J. C. R. Licklider interview, conducted by John A. N. Lee and Robert Rosin, “The Project MAC Interviews,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Apr. 1992.

20. Author’s interview with Bob Taylor.

21. Licklider oral history, Charles Babbage Institute.

22. J. C. R. Licklider, “Man-Computer Symbiosis,” IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics, Mar. 1960, http://groups.csail.mit.edu/medg/people/psz/Licklider.html.

23. David Walden and Raymond Nickerson, editors, A Culture of Innovation: Insider Accounts of Computing and Life at BBN (privately printed at the Harvard bookstore, 2011), see http://walden-family.com/bbn/.

24. Licklider oral history, Charles Babbage Institute.

25. J. C. R. Licklider, Libraries of the Future (MIT, 1965), 53.

26. Licklider, Libraries of the Future, 4.

27. Sherman Adams, Firsthand Report (Harper, 1961), 415; Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 17.

28. James Killian interview, “War and Peace,” WGBH, Apr. 18, 1986; James Killian, Sputnik, Scientists, and Eisenhower (MIT, 1982), 20.

29. Fred Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture (University of Chicago, 2006), 108.

30. Licklider oral history, Charles Babbage Institute.

31. Licklider interview, conducted by James Pelkey; see also James Pelkey, “Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation,” http://www.historyofcomputercommunications.info/Book/2/2.1-IntergalacticNetwork_1962-1964.html#_ftn1.

32. J. C. R. Licklider, “Memorandum for Members and Affiliates of the Intergalactic Computer Network,” ARPA, Apr. 23, 1963. See also J. C. R. Licklider and Welden Clark, “Online Man-Computer Communications,” Proceedings of AIEE-IRE, Spring 1962.

33. Author’s interview with Bob Taylor.

34. Author’s interview with Larry Roberts.

35. Bob Taylor oral history, Computer History Museum, 2008; author’s interview with Bob Taylor.

36. Michael Hiltzik, Dealers of Lightning (Harper, 1999; locations refer to the Kindle edition), 536. 530.

37. Author’s interview with Bob Taylor.

38. Author’s interview with Bob Taylor.

39. Robert Taylor oral history, Computer History Museum; author’s interview with Bob Taylor; Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 86.

40. Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 591, has the fullest description of this meeting. See also Hiltzik, Dealers of Lightning, 1120; Kleinrock oral history, “How the Web Was Won,” Vanity Fair, July 2008.

41. Charles Herzfeld interview with Andreu Veà, “The Unknown History of the Internet,” 2010, http://www.computer.org/comphistory/pubs/2010-11-vea.pdf.

42. Author’s interview with Bob Taylor.

43. Author’s interview with Larry Roberts.

44. Author’s interview with Larry Roberts.

45. As with the tale of Herzfeld funding ARPANET after a twenty-minute meeting, this story of Taylor recruiting Roberts down to Washington has been oft-told. This version comes from author’s interviews with Taylor and Roberts; Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 667; Stephen Segaller, Nerds 2.0.1 (TV Books, 1998), 47; Bob Taylor oral history, Computer History Museum; Larry Roberts, “The Arpanet and Computer Networks,” Proceedings of the ACM Conference on the History of Personal Workstations, Jan. 9, 1986.

46. Author’s interview with Bob Taylor.

47. Author’s interview with Bob Taylor.

48. Author’s interview with Larry Roberts.

49. Larry Roberts oral history, Charles Babbage Institute.

50. Author’s interview with Bob Taylor.

51. Janet Abbate, Inventing the Internet (MIT, 1999), 1012; Larry Roberts oral history, Charles Babbage Institute.

52. Wes Clark oral history, conducted by Judy O’Neill, May 3, 1990, Charles Babbage Institute.

53. There are differing versions of this story, including some that say it was a taxi ride. Bob Taylor insists it was in a car he had rented. Author’s interviews with Bob Taylor and Larry Roberts; Robert Taylor oral history, conducted by Paul McJones, Oct. 2008, Computer History Museum; Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 1054; Segaller, Nerds, 62.

54. Author’s interview with Vint Cerf.

55. Paul Baran, “On Distributed Computer Networks,” IEEE Transactions on Communications Systems, Mar. 1964. This section on Baran draws on John Naughton, A Brief History of the Future (Overlook, 2000), chapter 6; Abbate, Inventing the Internet, 314 and passim; Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 723, 1119.

56. Paul Baran interview, in James Pelkey, “Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation,” http://www.historyofcomputercommunications.info/Book/2/2.4-Paul%20Baran-59-65.html#_ftn9.

57. Paul Baran oral history, “How the Web Was Won,” Vanity Fair, July 2008; interview with Paul Baran, by Stewart Brand, Wired, Mar. 2001; Paul Baran oral history, conducted by David Hochfelder, Oct. 24, 1999, IEEE History Center; Clayton Christensen, The Innovator’s Dilemma (Harper, 1997).