Текст книги "The Innovators: How a Group of Inventors, Hackers, Geniuses, and Geeks Created the Digital Revolution"

Автор книги: Walter Isaacson

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This innovation will come from people who are able to link beauty to engineering, humanity to technology, and poetry to processors. In other words, it will come from the spiritual heirs of Ada Lovelace, creators who can flourish where the arts intersect with the sciences and who have a rebellious sense of wonder that opens them to the beauty of both.

I. A neuron is a nerve cell that transmits information using electrical or chemical signals. A synapse is a structure or pathway that carries a signal from a neuron to another neuron or cell.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I want to thank the people who gave me interviews and provided information, including Bob Albrecht, Al Alcorn, Marc Andreessen, Tim Berners-Lee, Stewart Brand, Dan Bricklin, Larry Brilliant, John Seeley Brown, Nolan Bushnell, Jean Case, Steve Case, Vint Cerf, Wes Clark, Steve Crocker, Lee Felsenstein, Bob Frankston, Bob Kahn, Alan Kay, Bill Gates, Al Gore, Andy Grove, Justin Hall, Bill Joy, Jim Kimsey, Leonard Kleinrock, Tracy Licklider, Liza Loop, David McQueeney, Gordon Moore, John Negroponte, Larry Page, Howard Rheingold, Larry Roberts, Arthur Rock, Virginia Rometty, Ben Rosen, Steve Russell, Eric Schmidt, Bob Taylor, Paul Terrell, Jimmy Wales, Evan Williams, and Steve Wozniak. I’m also grateful to people who gave useful advice along the way, including Ken Auletta, Larry Cohen, David Derbes, John Doerr, John Hollar, John Markoff, Lynda Resnick, Joe Zeff, and Michael Moritz.

Rahul Mehta at the University of Chicago and Danny Z. Wilson at Harvard read an early draft to fix any math or engineering mistakes; no doubt I snuck a few in when they weren’t looking, so they shouldn’t be blamed for any lapses. I’m particularly grateful to Strobe Talbott, who read and made extensive comments on a draft. He has done the same for each book I’ve written, going back to The Wise Men in 1986, and I’ve kept every set of his detailed notes as a testament to his wisdom and generosity.

I also tried something different for this book: crowdsourcing suggestions and corrections on many of the chapters. This isn’t a new thing. Sending around papers for comments is one reason why the Royal Society was created in London in 1660 and why Benjamin Franklin founded the American Philosophical Society. At Time magazine, we had a practice of sending story drafts to all bureaus for their “comments and corrections,” which was very useful. In the past, I’ve sent parts of my drafts to dozens of people I knew. By using the Internet, I could solicit comments and corrections from thousands of people I didn’t know.

This seemed fitting, because facilitating the collaborative process was one reason the Internet was created. One night when I was writing about that, I realized that I should try using the Internet for this original purpose. It would, I hoped, both improve my drafts and allow me to understand better how today’s Internet-based tools (compared to Usenet and the old bulletin board systems) facilitate collaboration.

I experimented on many sites. The best, it turned out, was Medium, which was invented by Ev Williams, a character in this book. One excerpt was read by 18,200 people in its first week online. That’s approximately 18,170 more draft readers than I’ve ever had in the past. Scores of readers posted comments, and hundreds sent me emails. This led to many changes and additions as well as an entirely new section (on Dan Bricklin and VisiCalc). I want to thank the hundreds of collaborators, some of whom I have now gotten to know, who helped me in this crowdsourcing process. (Speaking of which, I hope that someone will soon invent a cross between an enhanced eBook and a wiki so that new forms of multimedia history can emerge that are partly author-guided and partly crowdsourced.)

I also want to thank Alice Mayhew and Amanda Urban, who have been my editor and agent for thirty years, and the team at Simon & Schuster: Carolyn Reidy, Jonathan Karp, Jonathan Cox, Julia Prosser, Jackie Seow, Irene Kheradi, Judith Hoover, Ruth Lee-Mui, and Jonathan Evans. At the Aspen Institute, I am indebted to Pat Zindulka and Leah Bitounis, among many others. I’m also lucky to have three generations of my family willing to read and comment on a draft of this book: my father, Irwin (an electrical engineer); my brother, Lee (a computer consultant); and my daughter, Betsy (a tech writer, who first turned me on to Ada Lovelace). Most of all, I am grateful to my wife, Cathy, the wisest reader and most loving person I’ve ever known.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Walter Isaacson, the CEO of the Aspen Institute, has been the chairman of CNN and the managing editor of Time magazine. He is the author of Steve Jobs; Einstein: His Life and Universe; Benjamin Franklin: An American Life; and Kissinger: A Biography, and is the coauthor, with Evan Thomas, of The Wise Men: Six Friends and the World They Made. He and his wife live in Washington, DC.

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NOTES

INTRODUCTION

1. Henry Kissinger, background briefing for reporters, Jan. 15, 1974, from file in Time magazine archives.

2. Steven Shapin, The Scientific Revolution (University of Chicago Press, 1996), 1, 5.

CHAPTER ONE: ADA, COUNTESS OF LOVELACE

1. Lady Byron to Mary King, May 13, 1833. The Byron family letters, including those of Ada, are in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. Transcriptions of Ada’s are in Betty Toole, Ada, the Enchantress of Numbers: A Selection from the Letters (Strawberry, 1992) and in Doris Langley Moore, Ada, Countess of Lovelace (John Murray, 1977). In addition to sources cited below, this section also draws on Joan Baum, The Calculating Passion of Ada Byron (Archon, 1986); William Gibson and Bruce Sterling, The Difference Engine (Bantam, 1991); Dorothy Stein, Ada (MIT Press, 1985); Doron Swade, The Difference Engine (Viking, 2001); Betty Toole, Ada: Prophet of the Computer Age (Strawberry, 1998); Benjamin Woolley, The Bride of Science (Macmillan, 1999); Jeremy Bernstein, The Analytical Engine (Morrow, 1963); James Gleick, The Information (Pantheon, 2011), chapter 4. Unless otherwise noted, quotes from Ada’s letters rely on the Toole transcriptions.

Writers about Ada Lovelace range from canonizers to debunkers. The most sympathetic books are those by Toole, Woolley, and Baum; the most scholarly and balanced is Stein’s. For a debunking of Ada Lovelace, see Bruce Collier, “The Little Engines That Could’ve,” PhD dissertation, Harvard, 1970, http://robroy.dyndns.info/collier/. He writes, “She was a manic depressive with the most amazing delusions about her talents. . . . Ada was as mad as a hatter, and contributed little more to the ‘Notes’ than trouble.”

2. Lady Byron to Dr. William King, June 7, 1833.

3. Richard Holmes, The Age of Wonder (Pantheon, 2008), 450.

4. Laura Snyder, The Philosophical Breakfast Club (Broadway, 2011), 190.

5. Charles Babbage, The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise (1837), chapters 2 and 8, http://www.victorianweb.org/science/science_texts/bridgewater/intro.htm; Snyder, The Philosophical Breakfast Club, 192.

6. Toole, Ada, the Enchantress of Numbers, 51.

7. Sophia De Morgan, Memoir of Augustus De Morgan (Longmans, 1882), 9; Stein, Ada, 41.

8. Holmes, The Age of Wonder, xvi.

9. Ethel Mayne, The Life and Letters of Anne Isabella, Lady Noel Byron (Scribner’s, 1929), 36; Malcolm Elwin, Lord Byron’s Wife (Murray, 1974), 106.

10. Lord Byron to Lady Melbourne, Sept. 28, 1812, in John Murray, editor, Lord Byron’s Correspondence (Scribner’s, 1922), 88.

11. Stein, Ada, 14, from Thomas Moore’s biography of Byron based on Byron’s destroyed journals.

12. Woolley, The Bride of Science, 60.

13. Stein, Ada, 16; Woolley, The Bride of Science, 72.

14. Woolley, The Bride of Science, 92.

15. Woolley, The Bride of Science, 94.

16. John Galt, The Life of Lord Byron (Colburn and Bentley, 1830), 316.

17. Ada to Dr. William King, Mar. 9, 1834, Dr. King to Ada, Mar. 15, 1834; Stein, Ada, 42.

18. Ada to Dr. William King, Sept. 1, 1834; Stein, Ada, 46.

19. Woolley, The Bride of Science, 172.

20. Catherine Turney, Byron’s Daughter: A Biography of Elizabeth Medora Leigh (Readers Union, 1975), 160.

21. Velma Huskey and Harry Huskey, “Lady Lovelace and Charles Babbage,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Oct.–Dec. 1980.

22. Ada to Charles Babbage, Nov. 1839.

23. Ada to Charles Babbage, July 30, 1843.

24. Ada to Lady Byron, Jan. 11, 1841.

25. Toole, Ada, the Enchantress of Numbers, 136.

26. Ada to Lady Byron, Feb. 6, 1841; Stein, Ada, 87.

27. Stein, Ada, 38.

28. Harry Wilmot Buxton and Anthony Hyman, Memoir of the Life and Labours of the Late Charles Babbage (ca. 1872; reprinted by Charles Babbage Institute/MIT Press, 1988), 46.

29. Martin Campbell Kelly and William Aspray, Computer: A History of the Information Machine (Westview, 2009), 6.

30. Swade, The Difference Engine, 42; Bernstein, The Analytical Engine, 46 and passim.

31. James Essinger, Jacquard’s Web (Oxford, 2004), 23.

32. Ada to Charles Babbage, Feb. 16, 1840.

33. Ada to Charles Babbage, Jan. 12, 1841.

34. Charles Babbage, Passages from the Life of a Philosopher (Longman Green, 1864), 136.

35. Luigi Menabrea, with notes upon the memoir by the translator, Ada, Countess of Lovelace, “Sketch of the Analytical Engine, Invented by Charles Babbage,” Oct. 1842, http://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage/sketch.html.

36. Babbage, Passages from the Life of a Philosopher, 136; John Füegi and Jo Francis, “Lovelace & Babbage and the Creation of the 1843 ‘Notes,’ ” Annals of the History of Computing, Oct. 2003.

37. All quotes from Menabrea and Lovelace’s notes are from Menabrea, “Sketch of the Analytical Engine.”

38. Charles Babbage to Ada, 1843, in Toole, Ada, the Enchantress of Numbers, 197.

39. Spoken in the film Ada Byron Lovelace: To Dream Tomorrow, directed and produced by John Füegi and Jo Francis (Flare Productions, 2003); also, Füegi and Francis, “Lovelace & Babbage.”

40. Ada to Charles Babbage, July 5, 1843.

41. Ada to Charles Babbage, July 2, 1843.

42. Ada to Charles Babbage, Aug. 6, 1843; Woolley, The Bride of Science, 278; Stein, Ada, 114.

43. Ada to Lady Byron, Aug. 8, 1843.

44. Ada to Charles Babbage, Aug. 14, 1843.

45. Ada to Charles Babbage, Aug. 14, 1843.

46. Ada to Charles Babbage, Aug. 14, 1843.

47. Ada to Lady Lovelace, Aug. 15, 1843.

48. Stein, Ada, 120.

49. Ada to Lady Byron, Aug. 22, 1843.

50. Ada to Robert Noel, Aug. 9, 1843.

CHAPTER TWO: THE COMPUTER

1. Andrew Hodges, Alan Turing : The Enigma (Simon & Schuster, 1983; locations refer to the Kindle “Centenary Edition”), 439. In addition to the sources cited below, this section draws on Hodges’s biography and his website, http://www.turing.org.uk/; the correspondence and documents in the Turing Archive, http://www.turingarchive.org/; David Leavitt, The Man Who Knew Too Much (Atlas Books, 2006); S. Barry Cooper and Jan van Leeuwen, Alan Turing : His Work and Impact (Elsevier, 2013); Sara Turing, Alan M. Turing (Cambridge, 1959; locations refer to the Kindle “Centenary Edition,” with an afterword by John F. Turing, published in 2012); Simon Lavington, editor, Alan Turing and His Contemporaries (BCS, 2012).

2. John Turing in Sara Turing, Alan M. Turing, 146.

3. Hodges, Alan Turing, 590.

4. Sara Turing, Alan M. Turing, 56.

5. Hodges, Alan Turing, 1875.

6. Alan Turing to Sara Turing, Feb. 16, 1930, Turing archive; Sara Turing, Alan M. Turing, 25.

7. Hodges, Alan Turing, 2144.

8. Hodges, Alan Turing, 2972.

9. Alan Turing, “On Computable Numbers,” Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, read on Nov. 12, 1936.

10. Alan Turing, “On Computable Numbers,” 241.

11. Max Newman to Alonzo Church, May 31, 1936, in Hodges, Alan Turing, 3439; Alan Turing to Sara Turing, May 29, 1936, Turing Archive.

12. Alan Turing to Sara Turing, Feb. 11 and Feb. 22, 1937, Turing Archive; Alonzo Church, “Review of A. M. Turing’s ‘On computable numbers,’ ” Journal of Symbolic Logic, 1937.

13. This Shannon section draws on Jon Gertner, The Idea Factory: Bell Labs and the Great Age of American Innovation (Penguin, 2012; locations refer to the Kindle edition), chapter 7; M. Mitchell Waldrop, “Claude Shannon: Reluctant Father of the Digital Age,” MIT Technology Review, July 2001; Graham Collins, “Claude E. Shannon: Founder of Information Theory,” Scientific American, Oct. 2012; James Gleick, The Information (Pantheon, 2011), chapter 7.

14. Peter Galison, Image and Logic (University of Chicago, 1997), 781.

15. Claude Shannon, “A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits,” Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Dec. 1938. For a clear explanation, see Daniel Hillis, The Pattern on the Stone (Perseus, 1998), 2–10.

16. Paul Ceruzzi, Reckoners: The Prehistory of the Digital Computer (Greenwood, 1983), 79. See also Computer History Museum, “George Stibitz,” http://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/birth-of-the-computer/4/85.

17. Howard Aiken oral history, conducted by Henry Tropp and I. Bernard Cohen, Smithsonian Institution, Feb. 1973.

18. Howard Aiken, “Proposed Automatic Calculating Machine,” IEEE Spectrum, Aug. 1964; Cassie Ferguson, “Howard Aiken: Makin’ a Computer Wonder,” Harvard Gazette, Apr. 9, 1998.

19. I. Bernard Cohen, Howard Aiken: Portrait of a Computer Pioneer (MIT, 1999), 9.

20. Kurt Beyer, Grace Hopper and the Invention of the Information Age (MIT, 2009), 75.

21. Cohen, Howard Aiken, 115.

22. Cohen, Howard Aiken, 98 and passim.

23. Beyer, Grace Hopper, 80.

24. Ceruzzi, Reckoners, 65.

25. Horst Zuse (son), The Life and Work of Konrad Zuse, http://www.horst-zuse.homepage.t-online.de/Konrad_Zuse_index_english_html/biography.html.

26. Konrad Zuse archive, http://www.zib.de/zuse/home.php/Main/KonradZuse; Ceruzzi, Reckoners, 26.

27. Horst Zuse, The Life and Work of Konrad Zuse, part 4; Ceruzzi, Reckoners, 28.

28. The story of John Atanasoff and the controversy over the credit he deserves has led to some impassioned writings. A historical and legal battle pitted him against the creators of ENIAC, John Mauchly and Presper Eckert. The four main books about Atanasoff are all written by people who sought to take his side in this dispute. Alice Burks, Who Invented the Computer? (Prometheus, 2003; locations refer to the Kindle edition), is partly based on the documents of the legal battle. Alice Burks and Arthur Burks, The First Electronic Computer: The Atanasoff Story (University of Michigan, 1988) is an earlier, more technical book; Arthur Burks was an engineer on the ENIAC team who ended up being critical of Eckert and Mauchly. Clark Mollenhoff, Atanasoff: Forgotten Father of the Computer (Iowa State, 1988) was written by a Pulitzer Prize–winning reporter who was the Washington bureau chief of the Des Moines Register and after hearing of Atanasoff sought to resurrect him from being forgotten by history. Jane Smiley, The Man Who Invented the Computer (Doubleday, 2010) is by the acclaimed novelist who immersed herself in computer history and became an advocate for Atanasoff. For the personal background and involvement of Alice and Arthur Burks, see their “Memoir of the 1940s,” Michigan Quarterly Review, Spring 1997, http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.act2080.0036.201. This section also draws on Allan Mackintosh, “Dr. Atanasoff’s Computer,” Scientific American, Aug. 1988; Jean Berry, “Clifford Edward Berry: His Role in Early Computers,” Annals of the History of Computing, July 1986; William Broad, “Who Should Get the Glory for Inventing the Computer?” New York Times, Mar. 22, 1983.

29. John Atanasoff, “Advent of Electronic Digital Computing,” Annals of the History of Computing, July 1984, 234.

30. Atanasoff, “Advent of Electronic Digital Computing,” 238.

31. Atanasoff, “Advent of Electronic Digital Computing,” 243.

32. Katherine Davis Fishman, The Computer Establishment (Harper and Row, 1981), 22.

33. Atanasoff testimony, Honeywell v. Sperry Rand, June 15, 1971, transcript p. 1700, in Burks, Who Invented the Computer?, 1144. The archives for the trial are at the University of Pennsylvania, http://www.archives.upenn.edu/faids/upd/eniactrial/upd8_10.html, and at the Charles Babbage Institute of the University of Minnesota, http://discover.lib.umn.edu/cgi/f/findaid/findaid-idx?c=umfa;cc=umfa;rgn=main;view=text;didno=cbi00001.

34. Atanasoff testimony, transcript p. 1703.

35. Atanasoff, “Advent of Electronic Digital Computing,” 244.

36. John Atanasoff, “Computing Machine for the Solution of Large Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations,” 1940, available online from Iowa State, http://jva.cs.iastate.edu/img/Computing%20machine.pdf. For detailed analysis, see Burks and Burks, The First Electronic Computer, 7 and passim.

37. Robert Stewart, “The End of the ABC,” Annals of the History of Computing, July 1984; Mollenhoff, Atanasoff, 73.

38. This section draws on John Mauchly oral history, conducted by Henry Tropp, Jan. 10, 1973, Smithsonian Institution; John Mauchly oral history, conducted by Nancy Stern, May 6, 1977, American Institute of Physics (AIP); Scott McCartney, ENIAC (Walker, 1999); Herman Goldstine, The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann (Princeton, 1972; locations refer to Kindle edition); Kathleen Mauchly, “John Mauchly’s Early Years,” Annals of the History of Computing, Apr. 1984; David Ritchie, The Computer Pioneers (Simon & Schuster, 1986); Bill Mauchly and others, “The ENIAC” website, http://the-eniac.com/first/; Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (MIT, 2000); Joel Shurkin, Engines of the Mind: A History of the Computer (Washington Square Press, 1984).

39. John Costello, “The Twig Is Bent: The Early Life of John Mauchly,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, 1996.

40. Mauchly oral history, AIP.

41. Costello, “The Twig Is Bent.”

42. McCartney, ENIAC, 82.

43. Kay McNulty Mauchly Antonelli, “The Kathleen McNulty Mauchly Antonelli Story,” Mar. 26, 2004, ENIAC website, https://sites.google.com/a/opgate.com/eniac/Home/kay-mcnulty-mauchly-antonelli; McCartney, ENIAC, 32.

44. Ritchie, The Computer Pioneers, 129; Rheingold, Tools for Thought, 80.

45. McCartney, ENIAC, 34.

46. Kathleen Mauchly, “John Mauchly’s Early Years.”

47. McCartney, ENIAC, 36.

48. Kathleen Mauchly, “John Mauchly’s Early Years.”

49. John Mauchly to H. Helm Clayton, Nov. 15, 1940.

50. John Mauchly to John de Wire, Dec. 4, 1940; Kathleen Mauchly, “John Mauchly’s Early Years.”

51. Mauchly to Atanasoff, Jan. 19, 1941; Atanasoff to Mauchly, Jan. 23, 1941; Mauchly oral history, Smithsonian; Burks, Who Invented the Computer?, 668.

52. The battle over what happened was fought out in the Annals of the History of Computing, with multiple articles, comments, and bitter letters. This section and that on the legal battle, below, derive from them. They include Arthur Burks and Alice Burks, “The ENIAC: First General-Purpose Electronic Computer,” with comments by John Atanasoff, J. Presper Eckert, Kathleen R. Mauchly, and Konrad Zuse, and a response by Burks and Burks, Annals of the History of Computing, Oct. 1981, 310–99 (more than eighty pages of this issue were devoted to the assertions and rebuttals, prompting some discomfort on the part of the editors); Kathleen Mauchly, “John Mauchly’s Early Years,” Annals of the History of Computing, Apr. 1984; John Mauchly, “Mauchly: Unpublished Remarks,” with an afterword by Arthur Burks and Alice Burks, Annals of the History of Computing, July 1982; Arthur Burks, “Who Invented the General Purpose Computer?” talk at the University of Michigan, Apr. 2, 1974; James McNulty, letter to the editor, Datamation, June 1980.

53. Lura Meeks Atanasoff testimony, Sperry v. Honeywell; Burks, Who Invented the Computer?, 1445.

54. Mollenhoff, Atanasoff, 114.

55. Mauchly oral history, Smithsonian; John Mauchly, “Fireside Chat,” Nov. 13, 1973, Annals of the History of Computing, July 1982.

56. Ritchie, The Computer Pioneers, 142.

57. Mauchly oral history, Smithsonian.

58. John Mauchly testimony, Sperry v. Honeywell ; Burks, Who Invented the Computer?, 429.

59. John Mauchly to John Atanasoff, Sept. 30, 1941, Sperry v. Honeywell trial records.

60. Atanasoff to Mauchly, Oct. 7, 1941, Sperry v. Honeywell trial records.

61. In addition to the sources cited below, this section draws from Peter Eckstein, “Presper Eckert,” Annals of the History of Computing, Spring 1996; J. Presper Eckert oral history, conducted by Nancy Stern, Oct. 28, 1977, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota; Nancy Stern, From ENIAC to UNIVAC (Digital Press, 1981); J. Presper Eckert, “Thoughts on the History of Computing,” Computer, Dec. 1976; J. Presper Eckert, “The ENIAC,” John Mauchly, “The ENIAC,” and Arthur W. Burks, “From ENIAC to the Stored Program Computer,” all in Nicholas Metropolis et al., editors, A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (Academic Press, 1980); Alexander Randall, “A Lost Interview with Presper Eckert,” Computerworld, Feb. 4, 2006.

62. Eckert oral history, Charles Babbage Institute.

63. Eckstein, “Presper Eckert.”

64. Ritchie, The Computer Pioneers, 148.

65. Eckert oral history, Charles Babbage Institute.

66. John W. Mauchly, “The Use of High Speed Vacuum Tube Devices for Calculating,” 1942, in Brian Randell, editor, The Origins of Digital Computers: Selected Papers (Springer-Verlag, 1973), 329. See also John G. Brainerd, “Genesis of the ENIAC,” Technology and Culture, July 1976, 482.

67. Mauchly oral history, Smithsonian; Goldstine, The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann, 3169; McCartney, ENIAC, 61.

68. Burks, Who Invented the Computer?, 71.

69. McCartney, ENIAC, 89.

70. Eckert oral history, Charles Babbage Institute.

71. Eckert oral history, Charles Babbage Institute.

72. Eckert oral history, Charles Babbage Institute; Randall, “A Lost Interview with Presper Eckert.”

73. Hodges, Alan Turing, 3628.

74. In addition to the Hodges biography, Alan Turing, this section draws on B. Jack Copeland, Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park’s Codebreaking Computers (Oxford, 2006); I. J. Good, “Early Work on Computers at Bletchley,” Annals of the History of Computing, July 1979; Tommy Flowers, “The Design of Colossus,” Annals of the History of Computing, July 1983; Simon Lavington, editor, Alan Turing and His Contemporaries (BCS, 2012); Sinclair McKay, The Secret Life of Bletchley Park: The History of the Wartime Codebreaking Centre by the Men and Women Who Were There (Aurum Press, 2010); and my visit to Bletchley Park and the scholars, tour guides, displays, and material available there.

75. Randall, “A Lost Interview with Presper Eckert.”

76. The archives for the Honeywell v. Sperry Rand trial. See also Charles E. McTiernan, “The ENIAC Patent,” Annals of the History of Computing, Apr. 1998.

77. Judge Earl Richard Larson decision, Honeywell v. Sperry Rand.

78. Randall, “A Lost Interview with Presper Eckert.”

CHAPTER THREE: PROGRAMMING

1. Alan Turing, “Intelligent Machinery,” National Physical Laboratory report, July 1948, available at http://www.AlanTuring.net/intelligent_machinery.

2. In addition to the sources cited below, this section draws from Kurt Beyer, Grace Hopper and the Invention of the Information Age (MIT, 2009), and the following trove of Grace Hopper oral histories: Smithsonian (five sessions), July 1968, Nov. 1968, Jan. 7, 1969, Feb. 4, 1969, July 5, 1972; the Computer History Museum, Dec. 1980; Grace Hopper interview, Sept. 1982, Women in Federal Government oral history project, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard.

3. Kurt Beyer mistakenly calls her the first to get a math doctorate from Yale. Charlotte Barnum was the first in 1895, and there were ten before Hopper. See Judy Green and Jeanne LaDuke, Pioneering Women in American Mathematics: The pre-1940 PhDs (American Mathematical Society, 2009), 53; Beyer, Grace Hopper, 25 and 26.

4. Hopper oral history, Smithsonian, July 5, 1972.

5. Hopper oral history, Smithsonian, July 1968; Rosario Rausa, “In Profile, Grace Murray Hopper,” Naval History, Fall 1992.

6. Hopper oral histories (she told the same story), Computer History Museum and Smithsonian, July 5, 1972.

7. The Staff of the Harvard Computation Library [Grace Hopper and Howard Aiken], A Manual of Operation for the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (Harvard, 1946).

8. Grace Hopper oral history, Computer History Museum.

9. Beyer, Grace Hopper, 130.

10. Beyer, Grace Hopper, 135.

11. Richard Bloch oral history, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.

12. Beyer, Grace Hopper, 53.

13. Grace Hopper and Richard Bloch panel discussion comments, Aug. 30, 1967, in Henry S. Tropp, “The 20th Anniversary Meeting of the Association for Computing Machinery,” IEEE Annals, July 1987.

14. Beyer, Grace Hopper, 5.

15. Hopper oral history, Smithsonian, July 5, 1972.

16. Howard Aiken oral history, conducted by Henry Tropp and I. Bernard Cohen, Smithsonian Institution, Feb. 1973.

17. Grace Hopper and John Mauchly, “Influence of Programming Techniques on the Design of Computers,” Proceedings of the IRE, Oct. 1953.

18. Harvard computer log, Sept. 9, 1947, http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/images/h96000/h96566k.jpg.

19. Grace Hopper oral history, Smithsonian, Nov. 1968.

20. The Moore School Lectures, Charles Babbage Institute, reprint (MIT Press, 1985).

21. Hopper oral history, Smithsonian, Nov. 1968.

22. In addition to the sources cited below, this section draws on Jean Jennings Bartik, Pioneer Programmer (Truman State, 2013; locations refer to the Kindle edition); Jean Bartik oral history, conducted by Gardner Hendrie, Computer History Museum, July 1, 2008; Jean Bartik oral history, conducted by Janet Abbate, IEEE Global History Network, Aug. 3, 2001; Steve Lohr, “Jean Bartik, Software Pioneer, Dies at 86,” New York Times, Apr. 7, 2011; Jennifer Light, “When Computers Were Women,” Technology and Culture, July 1999.

23. Jordynn Jack, Science on the Home Front: American Women Scientists in World War II (University of Illinois, 2009), 3.

24. Jennings Bartik, Pioneer Programmer, 1282.

25. W. Barkley Fritz, “The Women of ENIAC,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Fall 1996.

26. Fritz, “The Women of ENIAC.”

27. Jennings Bartik, Pioneer Programmer, 1493. See also LeAnn Erickson, “Top Secret Rosies: The Female Computers of WWII” (Video, PBS, 2002); Bill Mauchly, ENIAC website, https://sites.google.com/a/opgate.com/eniac/; Thomas Petzinger Jr., “History of Software Begins with Work of Some Brainy Women,” Wall Street Journal, Nov. 15, 1996. Kathy Kleiman helped bring recognition to the women programmers after first meeting them when researching her Harvard undergraduate thesis on women in computing in 1986, and she coproduced a twenty-minute documentary called The Computers, which premiered in 2014. See ENIAC Programmers Project website, http://eniacprogrammers.org/.

28. Kay McNulty Mauchly Antonelli, “The Kathleen McNulty Mauchly Antonelli Story,” ENIAC website, https://sites.google.com/a/opgate.com/eniac/Home/kay-mcnulty-mauchly-antonelli.

29. Fritz, “The Women of ENIAC.”

30. Jennings Bartik, Pioneer Programmer, 1480.

31. Autumn Stanley, Mothers and Daughters of Invention (Rutgers, 1995), 443.

32. Fritz, “The Women of ENIAC.”

33. Oral history of Jean Jennings Bartik and Betty Snyder Holberton, conducted by Henry Tropp, Smithsonian, Apr. 27, 1973.

34. Jennings Bartik oral history, Computer History Museum.

35. Jennings Bartik oral history, Computer History Museum.

36. Jennings Bartik, Pioneer Programmer, 557.

37. Eckert and Mauchly, “Progress Report on ENIAC,” Dec. 31, 1943, in Nancy Stern, From ENIAC to UNIVAC (Digital Press, 1981).

38. John Mauchly, “Amending the ENIAC Story,” letter to the editor of Datamation, Oct. 1979.

39. Presper Eckert, “Disclosure of a Magnetic Calculating Machine,” Jan. 29, 1944, declassified trial exhibit, in Don Knuth archives, Computer History Museum; Mark Priestley, A Science of Operations (Springer, 2011), 127; Stern, From ENIAC to UNIVAC, 28.

40. In addition to specific notes below, this section draws on William Aspray, John von Neumann and the Origins of Modern Computing (MIT, 1990); Nancy Stern, “John von Neumann’s Influence on Electronic Digital Computing, 1944–1946,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Oct.–Dec. 1980; Stanislaw Ulam, “John von Neumann,” Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, Feb. 1958; George Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral (Random House, 2012; locations refer to Kindle edition); Herman Goldstine, The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann (Princeton, 1972; locations refer to Kindle edition).

41. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 41.

42. Nicholas Vonneumann, “John von Neumann as Seen by His Brother” (Privately printed, 1987), 22, excerpted as “John von Neumann: Formative Years,” IEEE Annals, Fall 1989.

43. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 45.

44. Goldstine, The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann, 3550.

45. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 1305.

46. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 1395.

47. Hopper oral history, Smithsonian, Jan. 7, 1969.

48. Bloch oral history, Feb. 22, 1984, Charles Babbage Institute.

49. Robert Slater, Portraits in Silicon (MIT Press, 1987), 88; Beyer, Grace Hopper and the Invention of the Information Age, 9.

50. Goldstine, The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann, 3634.

51. Goldstine, The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann, 3840.

52. Goldstine, The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann, 199; Goldstine to Gillon, Sept. 2, 1944; Beyer, Grace Hopper and the Invention of the Information Age, 120. See also John Mauchly, “Amending the ENIAC Story,” letter to the editor of Datamation, Oct. 1979; Arthur W. Burks, “From ENIAC to the Stored Program Computer,” in Nicholas Metropolis et al., editors, A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (Academic Press, 1980).