Текст книги "The Crusades. The Authoritative History of the War for the Holy Land"

Автор книги: Thomas Asbridge

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St Leonard, 117, 140, 143

St Peter, 63, 559

Basilica of, 77, 139

St Sophia, Basilica of, 48

Saladin (Yusuf ibn Ayyub), 2, 183, 270–1, 272, 273, 274–83, 285–98, 306–23, 332–64, 367–368, 378, 391–3, 394–8, 422–3, 425–8, 450–4, 457, 480, 481–7 passim, 488, 489–91, 498–502, 504–1, 508, 509–15, 624, 659, 669, 673, 675, 677, 678–9

achievement of, in 1187, 363

Aleppo and Mosul campaign of, 320–3

Aleppo stalked by, 292–4

armies disbanded by, 513

armies reassembled by, 498

Ascalon razed by, 477, 478

Assassins and, 294–5

Ayyubid strategy in 1192

and, 499–501

Baha al-Din’s biography of, 397

career, to 1186, of, 335–6

Chahine’s film of, 678

civil and religious rejuvenation initiated by, 278

Conrad’s assassination and, 495–6

Conrad’s urgent message to, 494–5

courtesy and clemency shown to Jerusalem Franks by, 359–61

damaged martial reputation of, 446

Damascus target of, 290–2

declining health and death of, 513–14

domination drive by, 316–23

ebbing strength of, 392

fever suffered by, 333–4

financial insecurity, troop shortages and sedition faced by, 501

first invasion of Palestine by, 278

fortifications continue to be razed by, 480, 482

at Great Siege of Acre, see Acre: Great

Siege of history’s view of, 335, 340, 464

indecisive generalship of, 446

intelligence network of, 324

Ismat marries, 296

at Jacob’s Ford, 311–15

Jerusalem left dangerously undermanned by, 490

Jerusalem’s water sources poisoned by, 505

likened to Devil, 370

Lyons and Jackson’s biography of, 335

major anti-Zangid offensive planned by, 320

modern Muslim biography of, 674

motives and mentality of, 286–7

news of Frederick’s death reaches, 422

‘noble savage’, 671

Palestine (1183) offensive of, 324–31

Palestine (1187) offensive of, 343–64

Raymond III seeks protection from, 343

rebuilds Egypt’s fleet, 298

repeated illness weakens, 446

Richard I’s Acre diplomatic exchanges with, 434

Richard I’s arbitration request to, 486–7

Richard I’s march from Acre and, 460, 462, 464, 465–70 passim, 472, 476

Richard I opens channels of communication with, 433–4

Richard I’s pact with, 451

Richard I’s protracted 1192

negotiations with, 510

Richard I’s three-year truce with, 512

ruinous setbacks faced by, 498

September 1187

intentions of, 357–61

strategy re-evaluated by, 478, 482–4

Third Crusade a contest between

Richard I and, 367

Third Crusade’s second advance on

Jerusalem and, see Third Crusade: advance on Jerusalem by (second)

Tyre besieged and attacked by, 394–5

will dictated by, 333

see also Jerusalem, kingdom of; Palestine

Salahiyya, 276

al-Salih, 285, 289, 290, 292, 293–4, 296, 317–18

death of, 317

al-Salih Ayyub, 574, 585, 590, 624

death of, 593

illness of, 589–90

mamluks favoured by, 591

al-Salihiyya, 261

San Germano agreement, 564–6, 567

Santiago de Compostela, 13, 185, 207

Saone, 396

Saruj, 228

Saudi Arabia, 677

see also Mecca; Medina

Sawar, 230

Sayyid ‘Ali al-Hariri, 674

Scandelion Pass, 400

Scott, Sir Walter, 671

Sebaste, 187

Second Council of Lyons, 649

Second Crusade, 197–8, 201–37

chronicler’s damning account of, 368

cost of royal participation in, 215

Damascus target of, 234–5

French and German armies set out for, 218

Islam’s countering of, 232–7

joint Latin council considers course of, 233–4

retreat from Damascus by, 235

Turkish assaults on, 220

Second World War, 675

Seljuqs, see Turks: Seljuq

Sermon on the Mount, 14

Shaizar, 142, 152–3, 157, 166, 233, 254

failed expeditions against, 171

Shajar al-Durr, 593–4, 606, 612

Shaqwi, Ahmad, 674–5

Sharaf al-Ma‘ali, 131, 133, 134

Sharamsah, 561

Shawar, vizier of Egypt, 267, 268, 269–70, 272, 280, 322

execution of, 273

Shirkuh ibn Shadi, 230, 242, 248, 251, 253

death of, 274

Egyptian campaigns of, 268–73

Shobak, 159

Sibylla, Princess (later queen of Jerusalem), 299–300, 301, 303, 323–4, 356, 379, 398

crowning and anointing of, 342

death of, 435

Sicily, 8, 181, 369, 371, 550, 551, 562, 564, 567, 577, 580

Byzantium’s tension with, 216

pressure on Rome from, 198

Sidon, 125, 127, 354, 412, 433, 448, 633, 656

Louis IX’s refortification of, 607

Siege of Acre, see Acre: Great Siege of

siege engines, projectile-launching, 53, 95, 98, 99, 100, 394, 632

at Acre, 417, 419, 431, 437–8, 652, 653

Baybars’, 630

‘God’s own’, 438

on shipboard, 585, 653

Sifilke, 421

Sigurd of Norway, 125, 214n

sin, as cause of defeat, 166

Sinai Peninsula, 270

Sinjar, 289, 321, 322, 423

Slavs, 27

Spain, 211, 214, 376, 533

Almohad Moors in, 532

Almoravids invade, 27

Islam reaches, 19

polities in, 7

territory reconquered from Moors in, 27

Splendid Accounts of the Crusading Wars (Sayyid ‘Ali al-Hariri), 674

Stabelo, 131

Stephanie of Milly, 304, 328, 360

Stephanie, princess of Cilician Armenia, 539

Stephen of Blois, Count, 46, 55, 68, 71, 106–7, 131, 134, 198

flight of, 74–5

Stephen of Burgundy, Count, 131

Stephen of Cloyes, 533

Stephen of England, 198

Stephen of Pisa, 184

Stephen of Sancerre, 415, 420

Strasbourg, 372, 381

Sufis, 25

Suger of St Denis, Abbot, 213

al-Sulami, 113, 264

Summaq plateau, 84, 139, 142, 152, 166, 240, 243

Syria, 1, 19, 23, 107, 191, 499, 557, 623, 628, 648

Abaqa’s raiding force in, 648

Baldwin II’s arrival in, 166

in crisis, 137–45

disarray in, 64, 229

drought in, 298, 316

earthquakes in, 253, 281

First Crusade in, 62–88

Mongols arrive in, 616

northern, Mongols attain dominion of, 618

Raymond III’s truce with, 332

Saladin’s ongoing attempts to subdue, 319

Saladin’s return to, 513

struggle for control in, 573

Taliban, 677

Talisman, The (Scott), 671

Tancred of Hautville, 45, 46, 52, 60, 69, 70, 86, 92, 94, 97, 101, 106, 116, 117, 127, 130, 137–9, 138–43 passim, 145, 146–9, 150–2, 160, 162

Antioch commanded by, 137

Baldwin of Boulogne outmanoeuvres, 119

Baldwin’s plight ignored by, 146

Battle of Artah and, 142

Battle of Harran and, 138–40

Cecilia betrothed to, 143

death of, 153

legacy of, 151–3

regency of Antioch taken up by, 120, 137

Tancred: or The New Crusade (Disraeli), 672

Tanis River, 560, 593, 594, 597–8, 599, 603

Taqi al-Din, 276, 278, 338–9, 344–5

death of, 500

at Great Siege of Acre, 404, 405

Tartars, see Mongols

Taticius, 54, 55, 56, 69

Taurus Mountains, 171n

Tell al-Ayyadiya, 404, 405, 407, 431, 452

Tell Bashir, 139, 141, 194, 237

Tell Danith, 159

Tell Kaisan (Toron of Saladin), 404, 415, 452

Templars (Order of the Temple of Solomon), 168–71, 187, 220, 307, 344, 353, 354, 386, 430, 463, 468, 489, 541–5, 560, 568, 572, 576, 595–6, 597, 598, 633–4, 649, 655

dissolved, 658

French crusading army joined by, 217

at Great Siege of Acre, 400, 406

at Jacob’s Ford, see Jacob’s Ford

political influence of, 170

popularising of, 169

supranational nature of, 170, 663

see also Hospitallers

Temple of Solomon, see Jerusalem: Aqsa mosque in

Temüjin, 613

Terre de Sueth (Black Lands), 136, 167, 252, 311, 318

Teutonic Knights, 541–5, 557, 568, 576, 595, 638, 658

Theobald V of Blois, 415, 420, 424

Theodora Comnena, wife of Baldwin III of Jerusalem, 254

Thibaut III of Champagne, 527, 528

Thibaut IV of Champagne, 573

Thierry of Flanders, 207, 254, 305

Third Crusade, 367–74, 378–83, 384–90, 392, 397, 398, 400–515, 662

Acre, Great Siege of, is first full-scale battle of, 405

advance on Jerusalem by (first), 480–2, 481, 488–9

advance on Jerusalem by (second), 502–4

and indecision, 502–3

councils convened on future of, 489, 494

factions and disputes threaten, 436

fate of Germans in, 420–2

Franks’ argument over strategy and leadership during, 504

Franks’ unquestioned maritime supremacy during, 445

Jaffa stalling of, 480

kings delay departure to, 382–3, 384–5

kings’ journey to, 388–90, 429

outcome of, 153–15

preaching of, 368–74

preparations and finances for, logistics of, 385–8

prostitutes’ arrival during, 411, 480

regrouping by, 492–3

religious ideology underpins, 479

retreats from Jerusalem by, see Beit Nuba: Third Crusade’s first retreat from; Beit Nuba: Third Crusade’s second retreat from

Richard I arrives at, 428–9

Richard I’s elaborate negotiations with

Saladin during, 482–8

Richard I’s freedom to lead, 456

tax (Saladin Tithe) associated with, 385–6

three-year truce after, 512

transport ships used during, 459

turns back from Jerusalem, see Beit

Nuba: Third Crusade’s first retreat from; Beit Nuba: Third Crusade’s second retreat from

winter’s effects on, 488

see also Richard I; Saladin

Thoros (of Edessa), 60–1

Thoros (son of Leon I), 252, 259

Tiberias, 117, 121, 126–7, 260, 313, 344, 346–8 passim

capitulation of, 354

Raymond welcomes Muslim troops into, 343

Saladin orders dismantling of walls of, 423

Tigris River, 20, 157, 333, 405

Toledo, 27, 152

Toron of Saladin (Tell Kaisan), 404, 415, 452

Tortosa, 147, 150, 213, 649, 656

Toulouse, 377, 383

Tours, 383, 388

Tower of the Chain (Damietta), 552

Tower of the King (Acre), 654

Transjordan, 159, 167, 281, 282, 318, 344, 393, 618, 625

strategic, political and economic significance of, for Ayyubid realm, 330

Trapesac, 396

Treaty of Devol, 145

trebuchets, see siege engines, projectile-launching

Tripoli, 86, 113, 147–50, 161, 257, 319, 393, 538, 539, 573, 635–6, 644, 649

Baybars’ assault on, 642–3

‘crusader state’, 115

Mamluks storm, 650–1

punitive raids against, 281

remarkable prosperity in 13th century enjoyed by, 547

Saladin’s 1188 attack on, 396

troubadours, 372–3, 376

Troyes, 168

Tughrul Beg, 21, 22

Tughtegin of Damascus, 135–6, 154–6, 157, 165–6

Assassins find ally in, 156

death of, 190

Tunis, 640

Turan, 348

Turan-Shah, 276, 277, 298, 304, 308–10

Turcoman dynasty, 157

Turcopoles, 163, 345

Turks, 21, 23, 26, 34, 36, 55, 89, 411–12

Kipchak, 590, 614, 627, 629

Seljuq, 21–2, 23, 53, 55, 57, 58, 59, 63, 75, 89, 107, 220, 230, 256, 541, 554, 614

Antioch recovered by, 27

at Battle of Dorylaeum, 57–9

at Battle of Manzikert, 27

war tactics of, 24

Tutush, 22

Twain, Mark, 672

Tyre, 90, 125, 172, 179, 182, 393, 398, 410, 412, 435, 436, 445, 448, 495, 633, 649, 656

Frederick Barbarossa’s bones buried in, 421

Hugh of Burgundy tries to seize control of, 496

refugee Latins take refuge in, 355

remarkable prosperity in 13th century enjoyed by, 547

Richard I refused entry into, 430

Saladin’s 1187

siege and attack on, 394–5

Saladin leaves untouched, 355–6

Umar, 362, 363

Unur of Damascus, 187, 192–3, 230, 231–2, 234, 235, 236, 239

death of, 244

Urban II, Pope, 11, 33–41, 42–3, 200, 288, 659

Alexius requests aid of, 49

Alexius’s appeal to, 34

becomes pope, 34

Clermont sermon of, 33, 35–9, 110, 198, 202, 203, 205

death of, 107

First Crusade instigated by, 10, 33–9

Gregory VII compared with, 16

preaching tour of, 35

Urban III, Pope, 367

urbanisation, 7

Usama ibn Munqidh, 179–80, 184, 187

Uthman (son of Saladin), 338, 540 ‘Uthman (caliph), 234

Venetian crusade, 199, 659

Venice, 7, 182, 541, 547, 649, 666

commercial powerhouse of Frankish Levant, 172n

Fourth Crusade envoys’ ill-fated treaty with, 527–8, 528–9, 531

Vézelay, 202, 206–8, 388

Virgin Mary, 18, 49, 187

Virtues of Jihad, The (Baha al-Din), 397

Viterbo, 201

Voltaire, 670

Wales, 372

al-Walid, Umayyad caliph, 250

War of St Sabas, 627

warhorses, 13n, 59

‘weighing of souls’, 11

Welf of Bavaria, 209

Welf dynasty, 198

Wends, 212, 213

Wibald of Corvey and Stavelot, Abbot, 213

Wilhelm II of Germany, 673, 674, 675

William I of England (the Conqueror), 46

William II of England (Rufus), 46

William II of Sicily, 371, 389

William of Aquitaine, 131

William of Beaujeu, 650, 653, 654

William Jordan, 148, 149

death of, 150

William of L’Estang, 478, 510

William of Longchamp, 385

exile of, 493–4

Saladin Tithe, 385–6

William Marshall, 384

William of Montferrat, 303, 393, 528

William of Salisbury (‘Longsword’), 580, 596, 597

William of Tyre, 195, 221, 229, 236, 257, 268, 271, 294, 300, 312, 320, 326, 328–9, 335

archbishop of Tyre, 303

chancellor of kingdom of Jerusalem, 195n

World Islamic Front, 668

Yaghi Siyan, 66, 67, 70

flight, capture and decapitation of, 73

weakening resistance of, 72

Yarmuk River, 136

Yasur, 482, 488

Yusuf ibn Ayyub, see Saladin

al-Zahir, 338, 394, 500, 512, 513, 540

Zangi, 1, 190–5, 205, 211, 225–9, 231, 240, 246, 263, 287

assassination of, 228

Baghdad’s honour for, 227

Edessa conquered by, 194–5, 225–7

honorific titles assumed by, 227–8

Syrian power balance reshaped by death of, 234

Zangid dynasty, 225, 227, 234, 238, 239, 248, 249–50, 320, 321, 514, 647

Zara, 528

Zaragoza, 200

Zardana, 152, 165

al-Zawahiri, Ayman, 679

Zionism, 675, 678

Zürich, 209

About the Author

THOMAS ASBRIDGE is Senior Lecturer in Medieval History at Queen Mary, University of London, and the author of The First Crusade. He lives in England.

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Also by Thomas Asbridge

THE FIRST CRUSADE

Credits

Jacket design by Allison Saltzman

Jacket art: Richard I at the Battle of Ascalon by Abraham Cooper, © Christie’s Images Ltd./SuperStock

Copyright

THE CRUSADES. Copyright © 2010 by Thomas Asbridge. All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. By payment of the required fees, you have been granted the non-exclusive, non-transferable right to access and read the text of this e-book on-screen. No part of this text may be reproduced, transmitted, down-loaded, decompiled, reverse engineered, or stored in or introduced into any information storage and retrieval system, in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereinafter invented, without the express written permission of HarperCollins e-books.

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EPub Edition © January 2010 ISBN: 978-0-06-198136-4

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* Even in the modern era many histories of the crusades written by ‘western’ scholars have been coloured (consciously or unconsciously) by a degree of bias, because most present this era from a Christian standpoint. This innate partiality might manifest itself relatively subtly–in the decision to describe the outcome of a battle as a victory or defeat, a triumph or disaster. In this account, which is divided into five parts, I have made a deliberate attempt to counteract this tendency by switching the point of view from western European Christian to Near Eastern Muslim in each major section. The book’s core, covering the Third Crusade, alternates between its two major protagonists–Saladin and Richard the Lionheart.

* France proved to be a major centre of crusade enthusiasm and recruitment when the wars for the Holy Land began in 1095. Even so, not all crusaders were French, but contemporaries who wrote about this era–especially those, like Muslims, who were looking in from outside western Europe–tended to brand all Christian participants in these holy wars as ‘Franks’ (in Arabic, Ifranj). It therefore has become common practice to describe the crusaders and those western Europeans who settled in the Near East as the Franks.

* The adherents of this Latin branch of Christianity–which today is more commonly known as Roman Catholicism–are more accurately described in a medieval setting as ‘Latins’.

* By modern standards, eleventh-century warhorses were relatively small–indeed, at an average twelve hands in height, today most would be classified as little more than ponies. Even so, they were cripplingly expensive to purchase and just as costly to maintain (requiring feed, horseshoes and the care of a dedicated squire). Most knights also needed at least one additional lighter mount upon which to travel. But small as they were, these warhorses still gave warriors huge advantages during hand-to-hand combat in terms of height, reach, speed and mobility. As equipment, fighting techniques and training improved, knights mounted on a stirruped (and therefore more stable) saddle also developed the ability to carry a heavy spear or lance couched underarm and learned to cooperate in a massed charge. The sheer brute force of this type of attack could utterly overwhelm an unprepared enemy.

* It is a popular misconception that crusading was a form of forceful evangelism. In fact, to begin with at least, religious conversion was not an essential element of crusading ideology.

* Typically, the first crusader knights wore what, by the standards of the day, was heavy armour: a conical steel helmet over a mail hood or coif, and a thigh-length mail shirt over a padded jerkin–all of which could hope to stop a glancing blow, but not a solid cut or thrust. For this reason, a large metal-bound wooden shield was also commonly deployed. The standard mêlée weapons were the lance–used couched or thrown over arm–and a one-handed, double-edged long sword, perhaps two feet in length. These heavy, finely balanced blades were more useful as bludgeoning tools than as sharp-edged cutting weapons. Knights and infantrymen also commonly made use of longbows–about six feet in length and capable of delivering arrows to a distance of 300 yards–while some also adopted rudimentary forms of crossbow.

* Both a eunuch and an able general, Taticius was said to have had his nose sliced off earlier in his military career and now wore a golden replica in its place.

* Atabegs were usually appointed as the guardians of princes, but often served as regional governors or commanders-in-chief.

* Around this time the rising Armenian Christian Roupenid dynasty began expanding out of their power base in the Taurus Mountains. They would eventually become one of the Levant’s major powers, but despite the maintenance of generally cordial relations with Edessa, the Roupenids’ desire to establish a kingdom in Cilicia brought them into conflict with Antioch.

* The Venetians received a startling variety of concessions from the kingdom of Jerusalem in return for their assistance. These included: a third of the city and lordship of Tyre, plus an annual payment of 300 gold bezants from the royal revenues of Acre; exemption from all taxation, barring that owed for carrying pilgrims to the Holy Land; the right to use Venetian measures in trade; and a parcel of property in every town of the realm (made up of a street and a square, plus a church, bakery and bathhouse) to be held in perpetuity. Baldwin II later managed to engineer some adjustments to the agreement–most notably, that land in the lordship of Tyre would be held by the Venetians as fiefs, with military service owing to the crown–but the deal, nonetheless, transformed Venice into the commercial powerhouse of the Frankish Levant.

* William of Tyre was born in the Levant in c. 1130 and went on to become chancellor of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem and archbishop of Tyre. Between around 1174 and 1184 William wrote an invaluable overarching narrative account of Outremer’s history from the time of the First Crusade.

* Sigurd of Norway, who campaigned in the Levant in 1110, was a king, but he shared the Norwegian throne with two of his brothers.

* Ismat died in January 1186 when Saladin was himself suffering from severe illness. The sultan’s closest advisers kept the news of his wife’s demise from him for two months for fear of causing him shock and distress.

* Of course, given the entrenched enmity that already existed between Saladin and Reynald of Châtillon, and in light of the sultan’s later treatment of him, it is likely that, in the lord of Kerak’s case, Saladin would have had no intention of seeking a ransom for Reynald.

* The Templars’ most important fortress, Pilgrims’ Castle (or Athlit), was begun in 1218 with the help and initiative of Latin pilgrims, and was said to be capable of holding 4,000 men. The stronghold is now in a ruined state, but serves as an Israeli military base and, therefore, cannot be visited. The order also rebuilt the major inland castle of Safad, in northern Galilee, during the early thirteenth century.