Текст книги "The Arabs: A History"
Автор книги: Eugene Rogan
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Военная история
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Текущая страница: 46 (всего у книги 47 страниц)
6 Charles Tripp, A History of Iraq (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 251.
7 Daniel Yergin, The Prize (New York: Free Press, 1991), p. 767.
8 A transcript of the Glaspie-Hussein interview is reproduced in Phyllis Bennis and Michel Moushabeck, eds., Beyond the Storm: A Gulf Crisis Reader (New York: Olive Branch, 1991), pp. 391–396.
9 Jehan S. Rajab, Invasion Kuwait: An English Woman’s Tale (London: Radcliffe Press, 1993), p. 1.
10 Heikal, Illusion of Triumph, pp. 196–198.
11 Ibid., p. 207.
12 Rajab, Invasion Kuwait, pp. 55, 99–100.
13 Heikal, Illusion of Triumph, p. 250.
14 Mohammed Abdulrahman Al-Yahya, Kuwait: Fall and Rebirth (London: Kegan Paul International, 1993), p. 86.
15 Rajab, Invasion Kuwait, pp. 14–19.
16 Ibid., pp. 73–74; Al-Yahya, Kuwait: Fall and Rebirth, pp. 87–88.
17 Rajab, Invasion Kuwait, pp. 43–45.
18 Ibrahim al-Marashi, “The Nineteenth Province: The Invasion of Kuwait and the 1991 Gulf War from the Iraqi Perspective” (D.Phil. thesis, Oxford, 2004), p. 92.
19 Abdul Bari Atwan, The Secret History of Al-Qa’ida (London: Abacus, 2006), pp. 37–38.
20 “Declaration of Jihad Against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Sanctuaries,” reprinted in Gilles Kepel and Jean-Pierre Milelli, eds., Al-Qaeda in Its Own Words (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), pp. 47-50. See also Bin Ladin’s CNN interview in ibid., pp. 51–52.
21 Heikal, Illusion of Triumph, pp. 15–16.
22 Ibid., p. 230.
23 Ibid.
24 Ibid., p. 234.
25 Ibid., p. 13.
26 Sari Nusseibeh, Once Upon a Country: A Palestinian Life (London: Halban, 2007), p. 318.
27 Rajab, Invasion Kuwait, p. 181.
28 Theodor Hanf, Coexistence in Wartime Lebanon: Decline of a State and Rise of a Nation (London: I. B. Tauris, 1993), p. 319.
29 Ibid., p. 570.
30 Ibid., p. 595.
31 Ibid., p. 616.
32 Kamal Salibi, A House of Many Mansions (London: I. B. Tauris, 1988).
33 Nusseibeh, Once Upon a Country, p. 337.
34 Hanan Ashrawi, This Side of Peace: A Personal Account (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), p. 75.
35 Ibid., pp. 82–84.
36 Nusseibeh, Once Upon a Country, p. 342.
37 The full text of Haidar Abdul Shafi’s lecture is reproduced on the Jerusalem Media and Communications Center website, http://www.jmcc.org/documents/haidarmad.htm.
38 Transcriptions of all opening and closing speeches by heads of delegations to Madrid are reproduced on the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs website, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Archive/. Israeli historian Amitzur Ilan attributes “true responsibility for the murder” of Bernadotte to Shamir and two other LEHI leaders; Ilan, Bernadotte in Palestine, 1948 (Houndmills, UK, and London: Macmillan, 1989), p. 233.
39 Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall, p. 500.
40 Ashrawi, This Side of Peace, p. 212.
41 Ahmed Qurie (‘Abu Ala’), From Oslo to Jerusalem: The Palestinian Story of the Secret Negotiations (London: I. B. Tauris, 2006), p. 58.
42 Ibid., p. 59.
43 Yezid Sayigh, Armed Struggle and the Search for State: The Palestinian National Movement, 1949–1993 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 656–658.
44 Ashrawi, This Side of Peace, p. 259.
45 Qurie, From Oslo to Jerusalem, p. 279.
46 Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), p. 547.
47 World Bank, “Poverty in the West Bank and Gaza,” Report No. 22312-GZ, June 18, 2001.
48 The construction of new settlements violated Art. 31 of the Oslo II accords, which stipulated: “Neither side shall initiate or take any step that will change the status of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip pending the outcome of the permanent status negotiations.”
49 B’tselem, the Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories, “Land Grab: Israel’s Settlement Policy in the West Bank,” May 2002, p. 8.
50 Ibid., pp. 433–444.
51 Bob Woodward, Bush at War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002), p. 35.
Epilogue
1 Osama bin Ladin’s television statement was broadcast on al-Jazeera television on October 7, 2001. An English transcription of his statement is posted on the BBC website, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1585636.stm.
2 Israeli statistics reproduced from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs website, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism.
3 All statistics relating to administrative detention, house demolition, and the Separation Barrier can be found on the B’Tselem website, http://www.btselem.org/english/list_of_Topics.asp.
4 “Bridging the Dangerous Gap Between the West and the Muslim World,” remarks prepared for delivery by Deputy Secretary Paul Wolfowitz at the World Affairs Council, Monterey, CA, May 3, 2002.
5 Secretary Colin L. Powell, “The U.S.–Middle East Partnership Initiative: Building Hope for the Years Ahead,” lecture delivered to the Heritage Foundation, Washington, DC, 2002.
6 White House spokesman Gordon Johndroe, quoted in the Guardian, December 27, 2008.
Index
Abbas, Ferhat Abbas Pasha Abd al-Qadir, Amir. See Jaza’iri, Amir Abd al-Qadir al– Abd el-Krim. See Khattabi, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Karim al– Abdullah, King Abdullah II of Jordan Abdulmecid I (Ottoman sultan) Abouzeid, Leila, Year of the Elephant Abu Jihad (Khalil al Wazir), PLO official Abu Nidal Group Acheson, Dean Afghani, al-Sayyid Jamal al-Din al– Afghanistan ’Aflaq, Michel Africa. See under individual countries Agha, Sulayman (Colonel Sиves) Ahmad Bey of Tunis Ahmad Pasha (Ottoman governor of Damascus) Ahmad Pasha (Ottoman governor of Egypt) Aida (Verdi) Al-Ahram newspaper Alami, Musa, Ibrat Filastin Alawites Al-Azhar (mosque university) Albanians Aleppo conquered by Muhammad ’Ali under Ottoman rule Alexandria, Egypt Algeciras Conference, January 1906 Algeria assimilation movement centenary of French colonization fly swatter incident under French colonialism Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) native conscription oil production under Ottoman rule piracy Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) Algerian resistance movement Algerian revolution Battle of Algiers settlers’ movement Algerian workers, in France ’Ali Bey al-Kabir, Mamluk ruler of Egypt Amer, Field Marshal Abd al– Hakim American University in Cairo American University of Beirut Amin, Ahmad radicalized Amin, Qasim The Liberation of Women Anas, Abdullah Anatolia Andrews, L. Y. Anglo-Egyptian Evacuation Agreement, 1954 Anglo-French Declaration of November 1918 Anglo-Iraqi Treaty, 1924 Anglo-Ottoman Convention for suppression of slave trade, 1880 An-Nahar Aoun, General Michel Arab culture cultural diversity Islam in Arab Higher Committee, Palestine Arab Human Development Report Arab-Israeli Wars 1948 War 1956 War (Suez Crisis, Tripartite Aggression) 1967 War (Six Day War) 1973 War (Ramadan War, Yom Kippur War) War of Attrition Arab League divisions within representatives, at Sadat’s funeral Arab Liberation Army (ALA), 1947–1948 unpreparedness Arab malaise Arab nationalism books on decline of era before in First World War post-World War I rise of Arab Revolt, 1916–1918 Arab Union, 1958 Arab Women’s Association, Palestine Arabian Peninsula Arabists. See Arab nationalism Arafat, Yasser addresses United Nations, 1974 assassination attempts and Intifada leaves Beirut, 1982 Oslo Accords Aramco (oil consortium) ’Arif, Colonel Abd al-Salam Asad, Bashar al– Aswan High Dam, Nile River Austro-Hungarian Empire Avnery, Uri Aya Sofia Mosque ’Ayn Dara, battle of Azm, As’ad Pasha al– Azm, Khalid al– Azm family Azm Palace Azm, Sulayman Pasha al– ’Azzam, Shaykh Abdullah
Ba’th Party in Iraq secular nature Bab Zuwayla (gates of Cairo) Bab-i Ali (High Gate). See Sublime Porte Baghdad Baghdad Pact, 1955 Bahrain Bahri, Yunis Baker, James Balfour, Lord Arthur Balfour Declaration Balkans nationalism under Ottoman rule Banking reform, Ottoman Empire Banna, Hasan al– Barbarossa (Khayr al-Din) Barbary corsairs (pirates) Baring, Sir Evelyn. See Cromer, Lord Bar-Lev Line Battle of Algiers (film) Bayhum, Muhammad Jamil Bedouins Begin, Menachem Bell, Gertrude Ben Badis, Abd al-Hamid Ben Bella, Ahmed Ben-Gurion, David Berbers Berlin Wall Bertholet (Eighteenth-century French scientist) Bin Ladin, Osama declares jihad on United States Bir Zeit University Bitar, Salah al-Din Black Saturday, January 26, 1952 Black September War Blum, Lйon Bolsheviks Bonaparte, Napoleon Bouchard, Henri, French sculptor Bouhired, Djamila Bouhired, Fatiha Bourиs-Maunoury, Maurice Bourguiba, Habib Boutros-Ghali, Boutros Boy levy (devshirme) Brezhnev, Leonid Britain acquires Cyprus controls Persian Gulf end of colonial power invasion of Baghdad leaves Palestine and Ottoman Empire position on Balkan independence rivalry with France rules Egypt rules Iraq and Saudi Arabia Suez Canal treaties and promises, First World War and Trucial States World War II British East India Company British Empire British Petroleum (BP) Budayri al-Hallaq, Ahmad al– (Damascene diarist) Bunche, Ralph Bush, George H. W. Bush, George W. shoe-throwing incident Byron, Lord Byzantine Empire
Cairo burns, on Black Saturday under Ottoman rule as publishing center revolt against Ottomans Cairo Accord of November 1969 Cairo University CalTex Camp David Carter, Jimmy Catherine the Great Catroux, General Georges Cavell, Edith Ceausescu, Nicolae Cedar Revolution. See Independence Intifada Cemal Pasha Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Ceuta (Spanish North African posession) Ceylon (Sri Lanka) Chamoun, Camille Chancellor, John Charles V of Spain Charles X of France Chemical Ali. See Majid, Ali Hasan al– Chevron China, Communist. See People’s Republic of China Chou En-Lai (Zhou Enlai) Christians conquer Spain Maronites. See Maronites massacred in Mount Lebanon and Damascus, 1860 in Ottoman government in slavery Churchill, Winston Circle of equity Clayton, Sir Gilbert Clement, Marguerite Clinton, Bill Code de l’Indigйnat (Indigenous People’s Code, Algeria) Cold War era close of dйtente Eisenhower Doctrine and Israeli invasion of Lebanon Non-Aligned Movement. See Non-Aligned Movement Communist Party in Algeria in Syria Congress of Berlin, 1878 Constantinople. See Istanbul Constitution of 1876 (Ottoman Empire) Constitutional government Egypt Ottoman Turkey praise for Tunisia Cotton Covenant of the League of Nations Cox, Charles Cox, Sir Percy Crane, Charles R. Crimean War Croatia Cromer, Lord (Sir Evelyn Baring) Crusades Cyprus
Damascus under Ottoman rule prostitution in revolt against French revolt against Ottomans Damurdashi, Ahmad Karkhuda al– Darwinism, social Day of Maysalun Dayr Yasin massacre De Bunsen, Sir Maurice de Bunsen Committee, 1915 De Gaulle, Charles De Lesseps, Ferdinand De Rothschild, Baron Edmond Delcassй, Thйophile Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine Depression era Desert Storm War, 1991 Dйtente Deval, Pierre Devshirme (boy levy) Dey, role of Dinshaway Incident, 1906 Dir’iyya Agreement, 1744–1745 Disraeli, Benjamin Doria, Andrea Drake, Sir Francis Druzes and French colonialism and Ottoman reform Dulles, John Foster Dayan, General Moshe Dynastic rule
Education reform, Ottoman Egypt Abyssinian Campaign under Ahmad Urabi alliance with Soviets under Anwar Sadat. See Sadat, Anwar under British colonialism Cairo. See Cairo conquered by Ottomans Constitution of 1923, constitutional government declares bankruptcy, 1876 democracy in food riots, 1977 free press French in Greek War land taxation under Nasser, Gamal Abdel. See Nasser, Gamal Abdel newspapers under Ottoman rule peace treaty with Israel, 1979 post-World War I, revolt against Ottomans Revolution of 1919 role in First World War scholars, in France Six Day War Treaty of 1922 union with Syria, 1958 Wafd government War of Attrition World War II Egypt under Muhammad ‘Ali Egyptian Army acquires modern weapons under Muhammad ’Ali Pasha Egyptian Army, late nineteenth century divisions within Egyptians win recognition Egyptian nationalists. See also Wafd (Egyptian nationalists) Egyptian press Egyptian revolution, 1952 economy land reform Eisenhower, Dwight D. Eisenhower Doctrine Enlightenment Entente Cordiale Eshkol, Levi Ethnic cleansing Europe. See also under individual countries abandons support of Ottoman Empire alliance with Ottomans conquers Ottoman Empire and Greek War loans, to Ottoman and North African countries and Muhammad ’Ali and Ottoman reform Renaissance science and technology European warfare Eveland, Wilbur Crane Exodus (Jewish refugee ship) Exxon
Fakhr al-Din II Faqar, Zayn al-, Mamluk commander Faqari Mamluks Faruq, King Fascism Fatah Fatwas Faysal I, King addresses Paris Peace Conference, 1919 leads Arab Revolt, 1916-1918 rules Iraq rules Syria, 1918-1920 Faysal II, King Feminism. See also Women, role of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain Filiki Etairia (Society of Friends), Greek nationalist movement First World War Arab Revolt Arabists in Egypt’s role King-Crane Commission Mecca and Medina military conscription Ottomans enter Paris Peace Conference of 1919 partition of Ottoman lands Syria’s role FIS (Islamic Salvation Front), Algeria Fisk, Robert FLN (Algerian National Liberation Front) Fly swatter incident Ford, Gerald Fourteen Points France Charles X, overthrown colonies. See Algeria; Morocco; Tunisia cotton trade gains, in First World War invasion of Egypt July Revolution Napoleon Bonaparte. See Bonaparte, Napoleon occupies Syria Popular Front government rules Syria and Lebanon Vichy regime Free French forces, World War II Free Officers and Muslim Brotherhood French, in Vietnam French Constitution of 1814 Fuad, King (Egypt)
Galilee Gamasy, General Abd al-Ghani al– Gambetta Note Gaza Strip occupation Palestinian refugees in Georges-Picot, Charles Franзois Germany First World War and scramble for Africa Second World War. See Nazi Germany Ghanim, Shukri Ghazali, Janbirdi al– Ghazali, Zaynab al– Gibran, Khalil Glubb, General John Bagot (Glubb Pasha) Golan Heights Gorbachev, Mikhail Gore, Al Gouraud, General Henri Greater Syria Greek independence Greek War Guantanamo Bay prison
Habsburg Austria Hadid, Muhammad Hadid, Shaykh Marwan. See also Muslim Brotherhood in Syria Hadj, Messali Hafiz, Moulay Abd al– Haganah Haifa, Palestine Hamas (Palestinian Islamic Resistance Movement) Hammami, Said Hammer, Armand Hananu, Ibrahim Hanbali school Hariri, Rafiq Hasan, Moulay Hashemites. See also King Abdullah I, King Abdullah II, King Faisal I, King Faisal II, King Hussein, Sharif Husayn ibn Ali Heikal, Mohammed Herriot, Edouard Herzl, Theodore, The Jewish State Hijackings, airplane Hijaz (Arabian province) Ottoman Empire battles for Hizbullah Holocaust Holy Places Dispute Hostage crisis, American Embassy Hot-air balloon, in Egypt Hrawi, Elias Hulagu Hungary Husayn ibn ’Ali, Sharif of Mecca Husayn ibn ’Ali, Imam Husayn Pasha, Dey of Algiers Husayni, Abd al– Qadir al– Husayni, Jamal al– Husayni, Musa Kazim al– Hussein, King of Jordan Hussein, Qusay Hussein, Saddam assassination attempt condemns Arab-United States alliance creates oil slick popularity sons of and weapons of mass destruction Hussein, Uday
Ibn Iyas, Muhammad ibn Ahmad, Mamluk chronicler Ibn Saud (Abd al-Aziz ibn Abd al-Rahman Al Saud), King Ibn Taymiyya Ibn Tulun, Muhammad Ibrahim Pasha, Nineteenth-century Egyptian general Imam, definition Independence Intifada, Lebanon, 2005 Indian Expeditionary Force, Mesopotamia WWI Industrial Revolution Intifada second Iran ancient. See Persia Islamic Revolution oil production support for Lebanese Shiites takes hostages, at American Embassy Iran-Iraq War Iraq under British colonialism invaded by Britain invades Kuwait. See Kuwait invaded by Iraq Iran-Iraq War Karbala Kurds nationalism 1958 revolution oil production post-World War I under Saddam Hussein shoe-throwing protester Soviet Treaty of Friendship tribal divisions union with Jordan United States supports World War II Iraqi Free Officers Iraqi nationalists Iraqi Uprising of 1920 Irgun Iron Hand Society, Syrian nationalist movement Isabella and Ferdinand of Spain Islam birth of early fundamentalists Iranian Revolution. See Islamic Revolution, Iran mysticism pilgrimage in and polytheism Wahhabism Islambuli, Khalid al– Islamic Jihad (group) Islamic law (sharia). See Sharia Islamic nationalists. See Islamists Islamic Revolution, Iran Islamists Iran. See Islamic revolution, Iran Lebanon. See Hizbullah Palestinian. See Hamas Saudi Arabia. See also Bin Ladin, Osama Ismail (khedive) Israel. See also Jewish Agency, Palestine; Jews; Zionism and American diplomacy. See United States, diplomatic efforts arms race espionage invades Lebanon Iraq strikes Likud government massacres at Sabra and Shatila military experience 1948 Arab-Israeli war 1956 Arab-Israeli war peace negotiations peace treaty with Egypt Six Day War. See Arab-Israeli wars, 1967 War as United States ally War of Attrition Yom Kippur War. See Arab-Israeli wars, 1973 War Israeli-Lebanese Agreement of May 17, 1983 Issa, Mahmoud Istanbul (Constantinople) Istiqlal party in Transjordan in Morocco Italy colonization of Libya Renaissance and scramble for Africa unification
Jabarti, Abd al-Rahman al-, Eighteenth-century Egyptian chronicler Jahiliyya Jalili family Janissaries Jaza’iri, Amir Abd al-Qadir al-, nineteenth-century Algerian leader Jerusalem Jewish Agency, Palestine military experience Jewish extremists Jewish nationalism. See Zionism, Zionists Jewish refugees, World War II Jewish state. See Zionism, Zionists Jewish State, The (Herzl) Jews. See also Zionism, Zionists and Ottoman reform pogrom, Iraqi Jidda (port city) Jihad in Afghanistan Algerian resistance Barbary pirates first Arab-Israeli war as Palestinian Syrian on United States Jihad, al– (magazine) Jim Crow laws Johnson, Lyndon B. Jordan. See also Transjordan Cold War era 1967 War succession of King Abdullah II, 479–480 as United States ally July Revolution of 1830 (France) Jumblatt, Kamal
Kamil, Mustafa Kanj Yusuf Pasha Kanunname (laws) Karami, Rashid Karbala, Iraq Kassir, Samir Kaylani, Rashid Ali al– Khair Bey, Mamluk governor Khayr al-Din al-Tunisi Khayr al-Din Barbarossa Khaled, Leila Khan Maysalun Khartoum Summit Khomeini, Ayatollah Khoury, Bishara al– Khrushchev, Nikita King, Henry Churchill King David Hotel bombing King-Crane Commission Kissinger, Henry Kitchener, Lord Khattabi, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Karim al-, (Abd el-Krim), leader of Rif War 1921–1926 Kristellnacht (night of broken glass) Kurds Kuwait invasion by Iraq Arab world divided consequences for Israel and Palestine consequences for Lebanon Highway of Death oil dumped into Gulf oil wells, detonated Kuwaiti resistance Kuwaiti oil production
Lahoud, Emile Lampson, Sir Miles Lavon Affair Lawrence, T. E. (Lawrence of Arabia) League of Nations Covenant Iraq admitted Lebanese civil war arms for Lebanese expatriate community Lebanese nationalists Lebanon confessionalism under French colonialism independence invaded by Israel Islamists in Israeli-Lebanese Agreement of May 17, 1983 National Movement National Pact, 1943 nationalists. See Nationalists, Lebanese under Ottoman rule Palestinian guerrillas in population, by religion post-Israeli war seeks alliance with Syria seeks independence Taif Accord terrorist attacks, Beirut the troika Lehi (Lohamei Herut Yisrael). See also Stern Gang Leiberman, Senator Joseph Leyden jars Libya Egypt attacks, 1977 under Italian colonialism 1969 revolution oil production under Ottoman rule Likud government, Israel London Conference of May 1832, London Convention for the Pacification of the Levant, 1840 L’Orient (Napoleon’s flagship) Lufti al-Sayyid, Ahmad Lyautey, Marshal Hubert
Macbeth (Shakespeare) MacDonald, Ramsay, 1931 “Black Letter” Maghrib Office, Cairo Mahdi’s Revolt, Sudan 1881–1885 Mahmal Mahmud I (Ottoman sultan) Mahmud II Majid, Ali Hasan al– (Chemical Ali) Mamluks conquered by Ottomans descendants massacre, at Citadel in Ottoman government revolt March 14 Alliance, Lebanon Marj Dabiq, Battle of, 1516 Maronites. battle Druze massacre Palestinians and Ottoman reform Martin, Cliff Maude, Sir Stanley McMahon, Sir Henry McPherson, Joseph Mecca and Medina battles for First World War pilgrimage to Medici Mehmed II Meir, Golda Melilla (Spanish possession) Mesopotamia. See also Iraq Middle Ages Middle East Defense Organization (MEDO) Migrant laborers Mikdadi, Lina. See Tabbara, Lina (Mikdadi) Milner, Lord Mishaqa, Mikhayil Mobil Mohammad V Mohi El Din, Zakaria Mongols Montefiore, Moses Montgolfier hot-air balloon Moriscos Moroccan nationalists Morocco during the Crusades under French colonialism independence local leaders co-opted loses independence under Spain succession of Mohammed VI “useful” Mount Lebanon Christian population Mubarak, Gamal Mubarak, Husni Muhammad (prophet) descendants Muhammad ’Ali Pasha battles Wahhabis decrees religious equality Egyptian Army under and Europe invades Sudan invades Syria kills Mamluks land taxation loses Syria modernizes army secession territorial gains Muhammad al-Sadiq Bey, ruler of Tunisia Muhammad Bey “Abu al-Dhahab”, Mamluk commander Muslim Brotherhood. See also Islamists in Egypt and the Free Officers in Gaza imprisoned in Syria Muslim Ladies’ Society Muslim Sisterhood Muslims. See also Islam fundamentalist Spanish Mussolini, Benito
Naguib, General Muhammad Nahda (cultural renaissance) Najd Nakba, al-. 269-270. See also Arab-Israeli wars, 1948 War Napoleonic army Nashashibi family Nasif, Malak Hifni Nasser, Gamal Abdel and Algeria dies on Iraqi revolution and Islamists Israeli War strategy as negotiator 1967 War strategy resigns and Yemen Nasserism Nationalism and national identity radicalized Nazi Germany Arab allies LEHI overtures to Nehru, Jawaharlal Nelson, Horatio Netanyahu, Benjamin Newspapers, Egyptian 1984 (Orwell) 9/11. See September 11, 2001 Nixon, Richard M. Nizami armies Non-Aligned Movement North Africa. See also under individual countries battle for North Africa (continued) nationalism under Ottoman rule North African colonialism North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Nuqrashi, Mahmud Fahmi al– Nusseibeh, Sari
Obama, Barack Occidental Petroleum October War. See Arab-Israeli Wars, 1973 War Oil Britain’s dependence on discovery in Iraq and migrant labor oil rich states and power production South America Soviet production and wealth creation Oil embargoes 1967 1973 Oil wells detonated, Kuwait 1991 Oman Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) Orwell, George, 1984 Oslo Accords Osman II (Ottoman sultan) Ottoman Constitution Ottoman Empire alliance with Barbary corsairs alliances with European countries Arab rebellion Arabs, in government and Britain challenged by Wahhabis conquers Arab lands declares bankruptcy fall of feudalistic nature of legal reforms, of Sьleyman II local leaders in loses Arab lands loses European territory Mamluks in. See Mamluks Nizami army partition of territory rule of Arab world. See under each country Russia invades Ottoman Public Debt Administration (PDA) Ottoman reforms, nineteenth century (Tanzimat) and civilian infrastructure education reforms erosion of sultan’s power opposition penal reforms Reform Decree, 1839 Reform Decree, 1856 and religious minorities transformation to constitutional monarchy Tunisia Ottoman statecraft Ottoman-Russian War of 1877–1878
Pahlevi, Mohamed Reza Paice, Marvyn Palestine and American diplomacy. See United States, diplomatic efforts Arab coalition fights for. See Arab Liberation Army (ALA) Arab Revolt, 1936–1939 and Balfour Declaration Britain leaves and British Mandate Dayr Yasin massacre declaration of independence, 1988 diaspora ethnic cleansing Haifa medical convoy attacked Nakba, al– opposition of Jewish state. See Palestinian nationalists partition of public opinion second intifada severed from Transjordan two-state solution under Ottoman rule United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) uprising. See Intifada Palestine Liberation Army Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) international opinion and Intifada leaves Beirut, 1982 Oslo Accords, 1993 as Palestine’s representative research center Palestine National Council (PNC) Palestinian nationalists. See also Intifada secular vs. Islamist Palestinian refugees in Gaza in Lebanon massacred, at Sabra and Shatila Paris Peace Conference of 1919, Egypt’s presence Lebanon’s presence Pashas, role of Passfield White Paper Peace of Kьtahya, 1833 Peace of Paris, 1856 Peel Commission, 1937 People’s Republic of China. Perestroika Perpetual Treaty of 1853, Great Britain and the Trucial States Persia. See also Iran Safavid Empire Persian Gulf Britain controls oil dumped into piracy Pйtain, Marshal Phillipe Peter the Great Petroleum products. See Oil Picot. See Georges-Picot, Charles-Francois Phalangist Party Pilgrimages Piracy Persian Gulf PKK (Kurdistan Workers’ Party) Polytheism, in Islam Pontecorvo, Gillo, The Battle of Algiers (film) Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) Porte, the. See Sublime Porte Portugal Presidios Press Prophet, The (Gibran) Prostitution, in Damascus Protectorate, definition Publishing under government control
Qadhafi, Colonel Muammar al– Qadiriyya order, of Sufi Qaida, al– Qansuh al-Ghawri, al-Ashraf Qarawiyyin mosque university Qasim, Abd al-Karim Qasimi Mamluks Qasimi tribal confederation Qassam, Izz al-Din al– Qatar Qawuqji, Fawzi al– Qur’an and Islamic modernists “Makers of the Pit” on other faiths on pharaohs on slavery Qusus, Awda al– Qutb, Sayyid Milestones Quwwatli, Shukri al– overthrown
Rabin, Yitzhak Radio stations Iraqi Radio Berlin’s Arab service Voice of the Arabs Railroads Ras al-Khaima Reagan, Ronald Red Line Agreement Reform Decree of 1839 (Ottoman Empire) Reform Decree of 1856 (Ottoman Empire) Religious conflict. See also Lebanese civil war; Palestine Druze and Maronites Restrained occupation, France in Algeria Rйveil, Le (French newspaper) Rif War, 1921–1926 Rigoletto (Verdi) Romania Roosevelt, Franklin D. Russia gains, in First World War invades Ottoman Empire Russian Revolution Russian-Ottoman War of 1877–1878
Sa’ada, Antun Saadawi, Nawal El Sabra and Shatila massacres Sadat, Anwar accomplishments assassinated assumes presidency attacks Libya expels Soviet advisors peace negotiations with Israel Safavid Empire Safwat, Ismail Said Pasha Salafism Salem, Salah Salman, Abu Salmun (prostitute) Sarrail, General Maurice Sartre, Jean-Paul Saud, Abdullah ibn Saudi Arabia and al-Qaida defense spending Directorate of Oil and Mining Affairs founding Islamists oil production see also Wahhabis, Wahhabism Scientific knowledge Scramble for Africa Second Egyptian Crisis, 1839–1840 Second World War and Britain’s rule of Middle East Free French forces Jewish refugees Vichy France Selim I (Selim the Grim) Selim III (sultan) September 11, 2001 post– Seven Years’ War Sиves (French colonel) (Sulayman Agha) Shadow plays, Egyptian Shahbandar, Abd al-Rahman Shakespeare, Macbeth Shamir, Yitzhak Sha’rawi, Ali Pasha Sha’rawi, Huda Sharia law Sharif Pasha Sharifian Solution Sharja Sharm al-Shaykh Sharon, Ariel Shaw Report Shihab family Shiites Druzes in Lebanon significance of Karbala vs. Sunnis Shoe-throwing incident Siba’i, Mustafa al-. See also Muslim Brotherhood in Syria Sidqi, Ismail Sinai Peninsula Six Day War. See Arab-Israeli Wars, 1967 War Slavery European opposition to and the Qur’an Slavery, military boy levy military. See also Mamluks Sudanese Social Darwinism Society of Young Ottomans South American oil Soviet Union (USSR) alliance with Egypt allies, after Cold War arms deals as arms supplier dйtente invasion of Afghanistan oil production perestroika role in Egypt Spain battles Barbary corsairs Christians conquer colonization of Morocco Spanish Armada Standard Oil Stern, Abraham Stern Gang. See also Lehi Strait of Gibraltar Straits of the Bosporus Sublime Porte Sudan Suez Canal as border control of nationalized restored to Egypt Suez Crisis (Tripartite Aggression). See Arab-Israeli Wars, 1956 War Sufism (mystical Muslim brotherhoods) Qadiriyya order Suicide bombers Sьleyman II (al-Kanuni), Sultan and Barbarossa Sunnis Sykes, Sir Mark Sykes-Picot Agreement Syria. See also Greater Syria Aleppo. See Aleppo claims Lebanon conquered by Ottomans Damascus. See Damascus declares independence under Egyptian rule under French colonialism and Iran-Iraq War Islamists in local leaders co-opted losses to Israel Muhammad ’Ali invades under Ottoman rule post-World War I role in First World War secession from Egypt succession of Bashar al-Asad union with Egypt Syrian Congress, 1920 ten-point resolution Syrian nationalists honorable cooperation policy Syrian Social Nationalist Party
Tabbara, Lina (Mikdadi) Tahtawi, Rifa’a al– Taif Accord, Lebanon, 1989 Taliban Tall, Mustafa Wahbi al– Tanzimat era, Ottoman Empire. See Ottoman reforms, nineteenth century Taqla, Salim and Bishara Tawfiq Pasha Taxation, land Taymiyya, Ibn Technology and Ottoman reform Tehran Agreement, 1971 Tenet, George Tergeman, Siham Texaco Times (London) Tito, Josip Broz Topkapi Palace Torture abolished, in Ottoman Empire of Algerian revolutionaries Guantanamo Bay prison of Islamists of Palestinian nationalists of political prisoners in the Qu’ran Transjordan. See also Jordan battles Israeli forces support for Partition of Palestine tax revolt Transylvania Treaty of 1922 (Britain and Egypt) Treaty of Berlin, 1878 Treaty of Fez, 1912 Treaty of Karlowitz, 1699 Treaty of Madrid, 1912 Treaty of Preferential Alliance, Great Britain and Iraq,1930 Tripartite Aggression (Suez Crisis). See Arab-Israeli Wars, 1956 War Tripoli (Lebanon) Tripoli (Libya) Trucial States Tulun, Muhammad ibn Tumanbay, al-Ashraf Tunisia battle for declares bankruptcy under French colonialism independence under Ottoman rule reforms, nineteenth century Tunisian Constitution of 1861 Turayqi, Abdullah al– Turco-Circassians Turkey, Ottoman constitutional government as the “sick man of Europe” Turkish (Iraq) Petroleum Company Tussun Pasha
Ukraine ’Umar, Zahir al– Umayyads Unified National Command (UNC). See also Intifada United Arab Emirates United Arab Republic United Nations Arafat addresses, 1974 diplomatic efforts Geneva Conference, 1973 Resolution Resolution United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) United Nations Security Council Resolution sanctions Iraq United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) Partition Resolution United States as ally of Jordan as Arab enemy as arms supplier diplomatic efforts, Arab-Israeli as Israel ally and Kurdish uprising Operation Desert Storm policies, post-Cold War post-World War I on Saudi soil University of Chicago University of Northern Colorado’s Teachers’ College University of Texas Urabi, Colonel Ahmad U.S.S Liberty, Israeli attack on during 1967 War USSR (Soviet Union). See Soviet Union ’Uthman Pasha Uthman Rifqi Pasha
