Текст книги "The Arabs: A History"
Автор книги: Eugene Rogan
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Военная история
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Текущая страница: 45 (всего у книги 47 страниц)
9 Lohйac, Daoud Ammoun, pp. 91–92.
10 Alphonse Zeniй, quoted in ibid., p. 96.
11 Yusif Sawda, resident in Alexandria, cited in ibid., p. 139.
12 Bayhum, al-‘Ahd al-Mukhdaram, pp. 136–140.
13 Si Madani El Glaoui, cited in C. R. Pennell, Morocco Since 1830: A History (London: Hurst, 2000), p. 176.
14 Pennell, Morocco Since 1830, p. 190.
15 Muhammad ibn Abd al-Karim (Abd el-Krim) published a statement of his political views after his capture by the French in Rashid Rida’s influential magazine, al-Manar 27, 1344–1345 (1926–1927): 630–634. For a translation see C. R. Pennell, A Country with a Government and a Flag: The Rif War in Morocco, 1921–1926 (Wisbech: MENAS Press, 1986), pp. 256–259.
16 Quoted in Pennell, Country with a Government, from French interviews with tribesmen after Abd el-Krim’s defeat, p. 186.
17 Ibid., pp. 189–190.
18 Ibid., pp. 256–259.
19 Fawzi al-Qawuqji, Mudhakkirat [Memoirs of] Fawzi al-Qawuqji, vol. 1, 1914–1932 (Beirut: Dar al-Quds, 1975), p. 81.
20 Edmund Burke III, “A Comparative View of French Native Policy in Morocco and Syria, 1912–1925,” Middle Eastern Studies 9 (1973): 175–186.
21 Philip S. Khoury, Syria and the French Mandate: The Politics of Arab Nationalism, 1920–1945 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), pp. 102–108.
22 Burke, “Comparative View,” pp. 179–180.
23 Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar, Mudhakkirat [Memoirs] (Beirut: Dar al-Irshad, 1967), p. 154.
24 Al-Qawuqji, Mudhakkirat, p. 84.
25 Shahbandar, Mudhakkirat, pp. 156–157.
26 Al-Qawuqji, Mudhakkirat, pp. 86–87.
27 Ibid., p. 89; Michael Provence, The Great Syrian Revolt and the Rise of Arab Nationalism (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005), pp. 95–100.
28 Siham Tergeman, Daughter of Damascus (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994), p. 97.
29 Shahbandar, Mudhakkirat, pp. 186–189.
30 Al-Qawuqji, Mudhakkirat, pp. 109–112.
31 John Ruedy, Modern Algeria: The Origins and Development of a Nation, 2nd ed. (Bloomington and Indianapolis: University of Indiana Press, 2005), p. 69.
32 Gustave Mercier, Le Centenaire de l’Algйrie, vol. 1 (Algiers: P & G Soubiron, 1931), pp. 278–281.
33 Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 296–300.
34 Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 298–304.
35 Ferhat Abbas, Le jeune Algйrien: De la colonie vers la province [The young Algerian: From the colony toward the province] (Paris: Editions de la Jeune Parque, 1931), p. 8.
36 According to Ruedy’s figures, 206,000 Algerians were drafted, of which 26,000 were killed and 72,000 wounded; p. 111. Abbas claimed 250,000 Algerians were drafted, of which 80,000 died; p. 16.
37 Abbas, Le jeune Algйrien, p. 24.
38 Ibid., p. 119.
39 Ibid., pp. 91–93.
40 Claude Collot and Jean-Robert Henry, Le Mouvement national algйrien: Textes 1912–1954 [The Algerian national movement: Texts 1912–1954] (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1978), pp. 66–67.
41 Ibid., pp. 68–69.
42 Ibid., pp. 38–39. On Messali, see Benjamin Stora, Messali Hadj (1898–1974): pionnier du nationalism algйrien [Messali Hadj (1898–1974): Pioneer of Algerian nationalism] (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1986).
43 A full translation of the bill is reproduced in J. C. Hurewitz, The Middle East and North Africa in World Affairs, vol. 2 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975), pp. 504–508.
44 Al-Khoury, Syria and the French Mandate, p. 592.
45 Bishara al-Khoury, Haqa’iq Lubnaniyya [Lebanese realities], vol. 2 (Beirut: Awraq Lubnaniyya, 1960), pp. 15–16.
46 Ibid., pp. 33–52.
47 Khalid al-Azm, Mudhakkirat [Memoirs of] Khalid al-’Azm, vol. 1 (Beirut: Dar al-Muttahida, 1972), pp. 294–299.
48 Tergeman, Daughter of Damascus, pp. 97–98.
Chapter 9
1 Communiquй of the Jewish Underground Resistance in Palestine, cited in Menachem Begin, The Revolt (London: W. H. Allen, 1951), pp. 42–43.
2 Stern’s words were reproduced by Joseph Heller, The Stern Gang: Ideology, Politics and Terror, 1940–1949 (London: Frank Cass, 1995), pp. 85–87.
3 Begin, The Revolt, p. 215.
4 Ibid., pp. 212–230.
5 Manchester Guardian, August 1, 1947, p. 5, cited in Paul Bagon, “The Impact of the Jewish Underground upon Anglo Jewry: 1945–1947” (M.Phil. thesis, Oxford, 2003), pp. 118–119.
6 Jewish Chronicle, August 8, 1947, p. 1, cited in Bagon, “Impact of the Jewish Underground,” p. 122.
7 Cited in William Roger Louis, The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 485.
8 Charles D. Smith, Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 4th ed. (Boston and New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001) pp. 190–192.
9 Reproduced in T. G. Fraser, The Middle East, 1914–1979 (London: E. Arnold, 1980), pp. 49–51.
10 Al-Ahram, February 2, 1948.
11 Qasim al-Rimawi accompanied Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni to Damascus and gave his account to the Palestinian historian of the 1948 Palestinian “Catastrophe,” Arif al-Arif; see al-Arif, al-Nakba: Nakbat Bayt al-Maqdis wa’l-Firdaws al-Mafqud [The catastrophe: The catastrophe of Jerusalem and the lost paradise], vol. 1 (Sidon and Beirut: al-Maktaba al-‘Asriyya, 1951), pp. 159–161.
12 Ibid., p. 161. In a footnote, Arif reminded his readers that other British soldiers had joined forces with the Haganah.
13 Ibid., p. 168.
14 Ibid., pp. 171 and 170.
15 Testimony of Ahmad Ayesh Khalil, son of a factory owner, and of Aisha Jima Ziday (Zaydan), from a family of small farmers who was seventeen at the time, reproduced in Staughton Lynd, Sam Bahour, and Alice Lynd, eds., Homeland: Oral Histories of Palestine and Palestinians (New York: Olive Branch Press, 1994), pp. 24–26.
16 Arif, al-Nakba, p. 173.
17 Ibid., pp. 173–174.
18 Ibid., pp. 174–175.
19 Benny Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 30.
20 Rashid al-Hajj Ibrahim, al-Difa’ ‘an Hayfa wa qadiyyat filastin [The defense of Haifa and the Palestine problem] (Beirut: Institute for Palestine Studies, 2005), p. 44.
21 Ibid., p. 104.
22 Ibid., pp. 109–112.
23 From the diary of Khalil al-Sakakini, quoted in Tom Segev, One Palestine, Complete (London: Abacus, 2000), p. 508.
24 Morris, Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, p. 141.
25 Avi Shlaim, The Politics of Partition: King Abdullah, the Zionists, and Palestine, 1921–1951 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).
26 John Bagot Glubb, A Soldier with the Arabs (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1957), p. 66.
27 Quoted in Fawaz Gerges, “Egypt and the 1948 War,” in Eugene Rogan and Avi Shlaim, eds., The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 159.
28 Avi Shlaim, “Israel and the Arab Coalition in 1948,” in ibid., p. 81. Only the Egyptian army expanded its numbers significantly in the course of the war, from an initial deployment of 10,000 to a maximum of 45,000 by the end of the war. Gerges, “Egypt and the 1948 War,” p. 166.
29 Gamal Abdel Nasser, The Philosophy of the Revolution (Buffalo, NY: Economica Books, 1959), pp. 28–29.
30 Constantine K. Zurayk, The Meaning of the Disaster, trans. R. Bayly Winder (Beirut: Khayat, 1956).
31 Musa Alami, “The Lesson of Palestine,” Middle East Journal 3 (October 1949): 373–405.
32 Zurayk, Meaning of the Disaster, p. 2.
33 Ibid., p. 24.
34 Alami, “Lesson of Palestine,” p. 390.
35 Richard P. Mitchell, The Society of the Muslim Brothers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 6.
36 ’Adil Arslan, Mudhakkirat al-Amir ‘Adil Arslan [The memoirs of Amir ’Adil Arslan], vol. 2 (Beirut: Dar al-Taqaddumiya, 1983), p. 806.
37 Avi Shlaim, “Husni Za‘im and the Plan to Resettle Palestinian Refugees in Syria,” Journal of Palestine Studies 15 (Summer 1986): 68–80.
38 Arslan, Mudhakkirat, p. 846.
39 Mary Wilson, King Abdullah, Britain, and the Making of Jordan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 209–213.
Chapter 10
1 Nawal El Saadawi, A Daughter of Isis: The Autobiography of Nawal El Saadawi (London: Zed Books, 2000), pp. 260–261.
2 Nawal El Saadawi, Walking Through Fire: A Life of Nawal El Saadawi (London: Zed Books, 2002), p. 33.
3 Anouar Abdel-Malek, Egypt: Military Society (New York: Random House, 1968), p. 36.
4 Mohammed Naguib, Egypt’s Destiny (London: Gollancz, 1955), p. 101.
5 Anwar el-Sadat, In Search of Identity (London: Collins, 1978), pp. 100–101.
6 Khaled Mohi El Din, Memories of a Revolution: Egypt 1952 (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1995), pp. 41–52.
7 Ibid., p. 81.
8 Naguib, Egypt’s Destiny, p. 110.
9 Ibid., pp. 112–113.
10 Sadat, In Search of Identity, p. 107, notes he was at the cinema when the coup began; Mohi El Din, Memories of a Revolution, notes the fight and police report.
11 Mohi El Din, Memories of a Revolution, pp. 103–104.
12 El Saadawi, Walking Through Fire, p. 51.
13 Sadat, In Search of Identity, p. 121.
14 Naguib, Egypt’s Destiny, pp. 139–140.
15 Ibid., p. 148.
16 Alan Richards, Egypt’s Agricultural Development, 1800–1980 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1982), p. 178.
17 El Saadawi, Walking Through Fire, pp. 53–54.
18 Charles Issawi, An Economic History of the Middle East and North Africa (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), table A.3, p. 231.
19 Figures in Naguib, Egypt’s Destiny, p. 168.
20 Richard P. Mitchell, The Society of the Muslim Brothers (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 149.
21 Joel Gordon, Nasser’s Blessed Movement: Egypt’s Free Officers and the July Revolution (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 179.
22 Mohamed Heikal, Nasser: The Cairo Documents (London: New English Library, 1972), p. 51.
23 Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), p. 112.
24 Hassan II, The Challenge (London, 1978), p. 31, cited in C. R. Pennell, Morocco Since 1830: A History (London: Hurst, 2000), p. 263.
25 Leila Abouzeid, Year of the Elephant: A Moroccan Woman’s Journey Toward Independence (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989), pp. 20–21. Abouzeid first published her novel in Arabic in the early 1980s.
26 Ibid., pp. 36–38. In the preface of her English translation she wrote: “The main events and characters throughout the whole collection are real. I have not created these stories. I have simply told them as they are. And, Morocco is full of untold stories.”
27 Ibid., pp. 49–50.
28 John Ruedy, Modern Algeria: The Origins and Development of a Nation (Bloomington and Indianapolis: University of Indiana Press, 2005), p. 163.
29 Heikal, The Cairo Documents, pp. 57–63.
30 Motti Golani, “The Historical Place of the Czech-Egyptian Arms Deal, Fall 1995,” Middle Eastern Studies 31 (1995): 803–827.
31 Heikal, The Cairo Documents, p. 68.
32 Ibid., p. 74.
33 Ezzet Adel, quoted by the BBC, “The Day Nasser Nationalized the Canal,” July 21, 2006, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/5168698.stm.
34 Heikal, The Cairo Documents, pp. 92–95.
35 Quoted in Shlaim, The Iron Wall, p. 166.
36 Heikal, The Cairo Documents, p. 107.
37 For details of the CIA coup plot see Wilbur Crane Eveland, Ropes of Sand: America’s Failure in the Middle East (New York: W. W. Norton, 1980).
38 El Saadawi, Walking Through Fire, pp. 89–99. The casualty figure is from Heikal, Cairo Documents, p. 115.
39 Heikal, Cairo Documents, p. 118.
40 Abdullah Sennawi, quoted by Laura James, “Whose Voice? Nasser, the Arabs, and ‘Sawt al-Arab’ Radio,” Transnational Broadcasting Studies 16 (2006), http://www.tbsjournal.com/James.html.
41 Youmna Asseily and Ahmad Asfahani, eds., A Face in the Crowd: The Secret Papers of Emir Farid Chehab, 1942–1972 (London: Stacey International, 2007), p. 166.
42 Patrick Seale, The Struggle for Syria: A Study of Post-War Arab Politics, 1945–1958 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1986), p. 307.
43 Khalid al-Azm, Mudhakkirat [Memoirs of] Khalid al-Azm, vol. 3 (Beirut: Dar al-Muttahida, 1972), pp. 125–126.
44 Ibid., pp. 127–128.
45 Seale, The Struggle for Syria, p. 323.
46 Avi Shlaim, Lion of Jordan: The Life of King Hussein in War and Peace (London: Allen Lane, 2007), pp. 129–152; Lawrence Tal, Politics, the Military, and National Security in Jordan, 1955–1967 (Houndmills, UK: Macmillan, 2002), pp. 43–53.
47 Eveland, Ropes of Sand, pp. 250–253.
48 Yunis Bahri, Mudhakkirat al-rahala Yunis Bahri fi sijn Abu Ghurayb ma’ rijal al– ‘ahd al-maliki ba’d majzara Qasr al-Rihab ’am 1958 fi’l-‘Iraq [Memoirs of the traveler Yunis Bahri in Abu Ghurayb Prison with the men of the Monarchy era after the 1958 Rihab Palace Massacre in Iraq] (Beirut: Dar al-Arabiyya li’l-Mawsu’at, 2005), p. 17.
49 This account was told to Yunis Bahri by an eyewitness while both were in prison in Abu Ghurayb. Bahri, Mudhakkirat, pp. 131–134.
50 Ibid., pp. 136–138.
51 Camille Chamoun, La Crise au Moyen Orient (Paris, 1963), p. 423, cited in Irene L. Gendzier, Notes from the Minefield: United States Intervention in Lebanon and the Middle East, 1945–1958 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), p. 297–298.
52 Heikal, Cairo Documents, p. 131.
Chapter 11
1 Quoted by Malcolm Kerr, The Arab Cold War: Gamal ‘Abd al-Nasir and His Rivals, 1958–1970, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), p. 21.
2 Mohamed Heikal, Nasser: The Cairo Documents (London: New English Library, 1972), p. 187.
3 Mouloud Feraoun, Journal 1955–1962 (Paris: Йditions du Seuil, 1962), p. 156.
4 Ibid., pp. 151–152.
5 The story was told by Zohra Drif, another woman veteran of the Battle of Algiers, in Daniиle Djamila Amrane-Minne, Des Femmes dans la guerre d’Algйrie [Women in the Algerian War] (Paris: Karthala, 1994), p. 139.
6 Georges Arnaud and Jacques Vergиs, Pour [For] Djamila Bouhired (Paris: Minuit, 1961), p. 10. Djamila Bouhired was the subject of a feature film by Egyptian filmmaker Youssef Chahine.
7 Amrane-Minne, Femmes dans la guerre d’Algйrie, pp. 134–135.
8 Alistair Horne, A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954–1962 (New York: New York Review Books, 2006), p. 151.
9 The controversy in France surrounding the use of torture in Algeria was reawakened with the publication in 2001 of General Paul Aussaresses’ memoirs of the Battle of Algiers in which he openly acknowledged the extent of torture. The book was published in English under the title The Battle of the Casbah: Terrorism and Counter-terrorism in Algeria, 1955–1957 (New York: Enigma, 2002).
10 Horne, Savage War of Peace, p. 282.
11 Feraoun, Journal, p. 274.
12 Ibid., pp. 345–346.
13 Amrane-Minne, Femmes dans la guerre d’Algйrie, pp. 319–320.
14 Anouar Abdel-Malek, Egypt: Military Society (New York: Random House, 1968), p. 287.
15 Quoted in Laura M. James, Nasser at War: Arab Images of the Enemy (Houndmills, UK: Palgrave, 2006), p. 56.
16 “There is no doubt that northern tribesmen . . . were listening regularly to Cairo by the mid-1950s.” Paul Dresch, A History of Modern Yemen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 77.
17 Ibid., p. 86.
18 Quoted in Mohamed Abdel Ghani El-Gamasy, The October War: Memoirs of Field Marshal El-Gamasy of Egypt (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1993), p. 18.
19 Heikal, Cairo Documents, p. 217.
20 Gamasy, The October War, p. 28.
21 Anwar el-Sadat, In Search of Identity (London: Collins, 1978), p. 172.
22 Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), p. 239.
23 Cited in Gamasy, The October War, p. 53.
24 Ibid., p. 54.
25 Ibid., p. 62.
26 Ibid., p. 65.
27 Hussein of Jordan, My “War” with Israel (New York: Peter Owen, 1969), pp. 89–91.
28 Michael B. Oren, Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East (London: Penguin, 2003), p. 178.
29 Hasan Bahgat, cited in Oren, Six Days of War, p. 201.
30 BBC Monitoring Service, cited in ibid., p. 209.
31 Ibid., p. 226.
32 Sadat, In Search of Identity, pp. 175–176.
33 Ibid., p. 179.
34 Ibid.
35 On Nasser’s diplomacy see Shlaim, The Iron Wall, pp. 117–123; on the initiation of Hussein’s meetings with Israeli officials see Avi Shlaim, The Lion of Jordan: The Life of King Hussein in War and Peace (London: Allen Lane, 2007), pp. 192–201.
36 Salah Khalaf wrote his memoirs under his nom de guerre, Abu Iyad (with Eric Rouleau), My Home, My Land: A Narrative of the Palestinian Struggle (New York: Times Books, 1981), pp. 19–23.
37 Cited in Helena Cobban, The Palestinian Liberation Organisation: People, Power, and Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 33.
38 Leila Khaled, My People Shall Live (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1973), pp. 85, 88.
39 Mahmoud Issa, Je suis un Fedayin [I am a Fedayin] (Paris: Stock, 1976), pp. 60–62.
40 Figures from Yezid Sayigh, Armed Struggle and the Search for Peace: The Palestinian National Movement, 1949–1993 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 178–179.
41 Khaled, My People Shall Live, p. 107.
42 Abu Iyad, My Home, My Land, p. 60.
43 Sayigh, Armed Struggle, p. 203.
44 Khaled, My People Shall Live, p. 112.
45 Ibid.
46 Ibid., p. 116.
47 Ibid., p. 124.
48 Ibid., p. 126.
49 Ibid., pp. 136–143.
50 Khalaf, My Home, My Land, p. 76.
51 Khaled, My People Shall Live, p. 174.
52 Cited in Peter Snow and David Phillips, Leila’s Hijack War (London: Pan Books, 1970), p. 41.
53 Heikal, Cairo Documents, pp. 21–22.
Chapter 12
1 Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power (New York: Free Press, 1991), p. 446.
2 Ibid., p. 500.
3 See for instance al-Turayqi’s arguments for an Arab oil pipeline; Naql al-batrul al-’arabi [Transport of Arab petroleum] (Cairo: League of Arab States, Institute of Arab Studies, 1961), pp. 114–122.
4 Muhammad Hadid, Mudhakkirati: al-sira‘ min ajli al-dimuqtratiyya fi’l-Iraq [My memoirs: The struggle for democracy in Iraq] (London: Saqi, 2006), p. 428; Yergin, The Prize, pp. 518–523.
5 Yergin, The Prize, pp. 528–529.
6 Cited in Mirella Bianco, Gadhafi: Voice from the Desert (London: Longman, 1975), pp. 67–68.
7 Mohammed Heikal, The Road to Ramadan (London: Collins, 1975), p. 70.
8 Abdullah al-Turayqi, Al-bitrul al-’Arabi: Silah fi’l-ma‘raka [Arab petroleum: A weapon in the battle] (Beirut: PLO Research Center, 1967), p. 48.
9 Jonathan Bearman, Qadhafi’s Libya (London: Zed, 1986), p. 81; Frank C. Wad-dams, The Libyan Oil Industry (London: Croom Helm, 1980), p. 230; Yergin, The Prize, p. 578.
10 Ali A. Attiga, The Arabs and the Oil Crisis, 1973–1986 (Kuwait: OAPEC, 1987), pp. 9–11.
11 Al-Turayqi, al-Bitrul al-’Arabi, pp. 7, 68.
12 Mohamed Abdel Ghani El-Gamasy, The October War: Memoirs of Field Marshal El-Gamasy of Egypt (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1993), p. 114.
13 Ibid., pp. 149–151.
14 Ibid., pp. 180–181.
15 Riad N. El-Rayyes and Dunia Nahas, eds., The October War: Documents, Personalities, Analyses, and Maps (Beirut: An-Nahar, 1973), p. 63.
16 Cited in Yergin, The Prize, p. 597. Khalid al-Hasan repeated the same story to Alan Hart: “Feisal said: ‘The condition is that you will fight for a long time and that you won’t ask for a cease-fire after a few days. You must fight for not less than three months.’” Alan Hart, Arafat: Terrorist or Peacemaker? (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1984), p. 370.
17 Heikal, The Road to Ramadan, p. 40.
18 El-Gamasy claimed that 27 Israeli aircraft were shot down on October 6 and that 48 aircraft were downed on October 7, for a total of 75 Israeli planes in the first two days of fighting; p. 234. He put Israel’s armored losses at more than 120 tanks destroyed on October 6 and 170 tanks on October 7; pp. 217, 233. These figures seem credible when compared to the official figures for the war as a whole, in which Israel lost a total of 103 aircraft and 840 tanks and Arab forces lost 329 aircraft and 2,554 tanks. Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), p. 321.
19 Cited in Yergin, The Prize, pp. 601–606.
20 El-Rayyes and Nahas, The October War, pp. 71–73.
21 Heikal, Road to Ramadan, p. 234.
22 Official Israeli figures cited by Shlaim, Iron Wall, p. 321.
23 Heikal, Road to Ramadan, p. 275.
24 Cited in Hart, Arafat, p. 411.
25 Ibid., p. 383.
26 Ibid., p. 379.
27 Uri Avnery, My Friend, the Enemy (London: Zed, 1986), p. 35.
28 Ibid., p. 52.
29 Ibid., p. 36.
30 Ibid., p. 43.
31 Ibid., p. 44.
32 Lina Mikdadi Tabbara, Survival in Beirut (London: Onyx Press, 1979), pp. 3–4, 116.
33 Hart, Arafat, p. 411.
34 The full text of Arafat’s speech is reproduced in Walter Laqueur and Barry Rubin, eds., The Israel-Arab Reader: A Documentary History of the Middle East Conflict (New York: Penguin, 1985).
35 Hart, Arafat, p. 392.
36 Patrick Seale, Abu Nidal: A Gun for Hire (London: Arrow, 1993), pp. 162–163.
37 United Nations Relief Works Agency statistics for numbers of registered refugees. As UNRWA notes, registration is voluntary and the number of registered refugees is not an accurate population figure, but would be less than the actual total. Robert Fisk gave the 1975 figure at 350,000 in Pity the Nation: Lebanon at War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 73. Refugee statistics posted to the UNRWA website, http://www.un.org/unrwa/publications/index.html.
38 Camille Chamoun, Crise au Liban [Crisis in Lebanon] (Beirut: 1977), pp. 5–8.
39 Kamal Joumblatt, I Speak for Lebanon (London: Zed Press, 1982), pp. 46, 47.
40 Tabbara, Survival in Beirut, p. 25.
41 Ibid., p. 19.
42 Ibid., pp. 20, 29.
43 Ibid., pp. 53–54.
44 Saad Eddin Ibrahim, “Oil, Migration, and the New Arab Social Order,” in Malcolm Kerr and El Sayed Yasin, eds., Rich and Poor States in the Middle East (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1982), p. 55.
45 Tabbara, Survival in Beirut, p. 66.
46 Walid Khalidi, Conflict and Violence in Lebanon: Confrontation in the Middle East (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979), pp. 60–62.
47 Ibid., p. 104.
48 Tabbara, Survival in Beirut, p. 114.
49 Jumblatt, I Speak for Lebanon, p. 19.
50 Tabbara, Survival in Beirut, p. 178.
51 The bread riots took place on January 18–19, 1977. Mohamed Heikal, Secret Channels: The Inside Story of Arab-Israeli Peace Negotiations (London: Harper Collins, 1996), p. 245.
52 Ibid., p. 247–248. For the Libyan perspective of the attack, see Bearman, Qadhafi’s Libya, pp. 170–171.
53 Heikal, Secret Channels, pp. 252–254. Sadat gives a similar account in his own memoirs: see Anwar el-Sadat, In Search of Identity (London: Collins, 1978), p. 306.
54 Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Egypt’s Road to Jerusalem (New York: Random House, 1997), pp. 11–12.
55 Ibid., p. 16.
56 Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 259.
57 Boutros-Ghali, Egypt’s Road to Jerusalem, p. 17.
58 Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 262.
59 Doc. 74, Statement to the Knesset by Prime Minister Begin, November 20, 1977, in Israel’s Foreign Relations: Selected Documents, vols. 4–5: 1977–1979, posted to the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs website, www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Foreign+Relations/Israels+Foreign+Relations+since+1947/1977–1979/. Emphasis added by the author.
60 Boutros-Ghali, Egypt’s Road to Jerusalem, pp. 134–135.
61 The statistics are drawn from Saad Eddin Ibrahim, “Oil, Migration, and the New Arab Social Order,” pp. 53, 55.
62 Ibid., pp. 62–65.
63 Boutros-Ghali, Egypt’s Road to Jerusalem, pp. 181–182, 189.
64 Alexei Vassiliev, The History of Saudi Arabia (London: Saqi, 2000), pp. 395–396.
Chapter 13
1 Giles Kepel, The Prophet and the Pharaoh: Muslim Extremism in Egypt (London: Saqi, 1985), p. 192.
2 Mohamed Heikal, Autumn of Fury: The Assassination of Sadat (London: Deutsch, 1983), pp. xi–xii.
3 Sayyid Qutb, “The America I Have Seen,” in Kamal Abdel-Malek, ed., America in an Arab Mirror: Images of America in Arabic Travel Literature (New York: St Martin’s Press, 2000), pp. 26–27.
4 Ibid., p. 10.
5 Sayyid Qutb, Ma‘alim fi’l-tariq [lit. “Signposts along the road,” often translated under the title Milestones] (Cairo: Maktabat Wahba, 1964). There are many English editions of Qutb’s Milestones. The edition I cite was published in Damascus by Dar al-Ilm (no date). These arguments from the introduction, pp. 8–11; ch. 4, “Jihad in the Cause of God,” p. 55; ch. 7, “Islam Is the Real Civilization,” p. 93.
6 Ibid., ch. 11, “The Faith Triumphant,” p. 145.
7 Zaynab al-Ghazali, Return of the Pharaoh: Memoir in Nasir’s Prison (Leicester, UK: The Islamic Foundation, n.d.), pp. 40–41.
8 Ibid., pp. 48–49.
9 Ibid., p. 67.
10 One of Hadid’s recruits recounted his experiences to a Syrian judge, reproduced in translation in Olivier Carrй and Gйrard Michaud, Les frиres musulmans [The Muslim brothers] (1928–1982) (Paris: Gallimard, 1983), p. 152.
11 Ibid., p. 139.
12 Isa Ibrahim Fayyad had been arrested in Jordan and accused of being part of a Syrian assassination squad sent to kill the Jordanian prime minister. His account of the massacre in the Tadmur Prison was reproduced in ibid., pp. 147–148.
13 The anonymous eyewitness account was recorded by a Washington Post correspondent and reproduced in the article “Syrian Troops Massacre Scores of Assad’s Foes,” June 25, 1981.
14 Thomas Friedman, From Beirut to Jerusalem (London: Collins, 1990), p. 86.
15 Quoted in Robert Fisk, Pity the Nation: Lebanon at War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 518.
16 Emphasis in the original; ibid., p. 512.
17 Quoted in ibid., pp. 480, 520.
18 Quoted in Augustus Richard Norton, Hezbollah (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007), p. 19.
19 On the Maronite-Israel alliance, see Kirsten E. Schulze, Israel’s Covert Diplomacy in Lebanon (London: Macmillan, 1998), pp. 104–124.
20 On Sharon’s plans for the restructuring of the Middle East, see Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), pp. 395–400.
21 Lina Mikdadi, Surviving the Siege of Beirut: A Personal Account (London: Onyx Press, 1983), pp. 107–108.
22 Colonel Abu Attayib, Flashback Beirut 1982 (Nicosia: Sabah Press, 1985), p. 213.
23 Mikdadi, Surviving the Siege of Beirut, p. 121.
24 Ibid., pp. 132–133.
25 From the official translation of the Final Report of “The Commission of Inquiry into the Events at the Refugee Camps in Beirut, 1983,” chaired by the president of the Israeli Supreme Court, Yitzhak Kahan, pp. 12, 22.
26 Selim Nassib with Caroline Tisdall, Beirut: Frontline Story (London: Pluto, 1983), pp. 148–158.
27 Naim Qassem, Hizbullah: The Story from Within (London: Saqi, 2005), pp. 92–93.
28 Ibid., pp. 88–89.
29 The full text of this foundation document, “Open Letter Addressed by Hizbullah to the Downtrodden in Lebanon and in the World” of February 16, 1985, is reproduced in Augustus Richard Norton, Amal and the Shi’a: Struggle for the Soul of Lebanon (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987). Passage quoted on pp. 174–175.
30 Fisk, Pity the Nation, p. 460.
31 Norton, Hezbollah, p. 81.
32 Abdullah Anas, Wiladat “al-Afghan al-‘Arab”: Sirat Abdullah Anas bayn Mas’ud wa ‘Abdullah ’Azzam [The birth of the “Arab Afghans”: The autobiography of Abdullah Anas between Mas?ud and Abdullah ?Azzam] (London: Saqi, 2002), p. 14. Born Bou Jouma?a, he adopted the alias Anas as his surname after joining the Afghan jihad.
33 For a brief biography, see Thomas Hegghammer, “Abdallah Azzam, the Imam of Jihad,” in Gilles Kepel and Jean-Pierre Milelli, eds., Al Qaeda in Its Own Words (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), pp. 81–101.
34 Abdullah ’Azzam, “To Every Muslim on Earth,” published in Arabic in the magazine he edited from Afghanistan, Jihad, March 1985, p. 25.
35 Abdullah ‘Azzam, “The Defense of Muslim Territories Constitutes the First Individual Duty,” in Keppel and Milelli, pp. 106–107.
36 The full record of U.S. support for the Afghan mujahidin is provided by Steve Coll in Ghost Wars (New York: Penguin, 2004); figures for the Carter years p. 89; for 1985, p. 102.
37 Anas, Wiladat “al-Afghan al-’Arab,” p. 15.
38 Ibid., pp. 16–17.
39 Ibid., pp. 25–29.
40 Ibid., pp. 33–34.
41 Interview with Zaynab al-Ghazali, Jihad, December 13, 1985, pp. 38–40.
42 Anas, Wiladat “al-Afghan al-‘Arab,” p. 58.
43 Ibid., p. 67.
44 Ibid., p. 87.
45 Shaul Mishal and Reuben Aharoni, Speaking Stones: Communiquйs from the Intifada Underground (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1994), p. 21.
46 Azzam Tamimi, Hamas: Unwritten Chapters (London: Hurst, 2007), pp. 11–12.
47 Sari Nusseibeh with Anthony David, Once Upon a Country: A Palestinian Life (London: Halban, 2007), p. 265.
48 Ibid., p. 269.
49 The charter was published on August 18, 1988; quote from art. 15. “Charter of the Islamic Resistance Movement (Hamas) of Palestine,” Journal of Palestine Studies 22, 4 (Summer 1993): 122–134.
50 Communiquйs 1 and 2, in Mishal and Aharoni, Speaking Stones, pp. 53–58.
51 Nusseibeh, Once Upon a Country, p. 272.
52 M. Cherif Bassiouni and Louise Cainkar, eds., The Palestinian Intifada—December 9, 1987–December 8, 1988: A Record of Israeli Repression (Chicago: Database Project on Palestinian Human Rights, 1989), pp. 19–20.
53 Ibid., pp. 92–94.
54 Hamas Communiquй No. 33, December 23, 1988, and UNC Communiquй No. 25, September 6, 1988, in Mishal and Aharoni, Speaking Stones, pp. 125–126, 255.
55 UNC Communiquй No. 25, September 6, 1988, in Mishal and Aharoni, Speaking Stones, p. 125.
56 Nusseibeh, Once Upon a Country, pp. 296–297.
57 Yezid Sayigh, Armed Struggle and the Search for State: The Palestinian National Movement, 1949–1993 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 624.
58 Cited in Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall, p. 466.
59 Communiquй No. 33, December 23, 1988, in Mishal and Aharoni, Speaking Stones, p. 255.
60 Robert Hunter, The Palestinian Uprising: A War by Other Means (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991), p. 215.
Chapter 14
1 Mohamed Heikal, Illusion of Triumph: An Arab View of the Gulf War (London: Harper Collins, 1992), pp. 14–17, for both Habash and Asad quotes. See also Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World (New York: Basic Books, 2005), pp. 212–213.
2 Mohamed Heikal, Illusion of Triumph, pp. 16–17.
3 Quoted in Zachary Karabell, “Backfire: U.S. Policy Toward Iraq, 1988–2 August 1990,” Middle East Journal (Winter 1995): 32–33.
4 Human Rights Watch, Genocide in Iraq: The Anfal Campaign Against the Kurds (New York and Washington, DC: Human Rights Watch, 1993).
5 Samir al-Khalil, the alias used by Iraqi author Kanan Makiya, provided a graphic description of political repression in Saddam Hussein’s Iraq in his 1989 study, The Republic of Fear (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989).
