Текст книги "Basic Course Reader (Сборник текстов для базового курса по английскому языку) "

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The first international language that we know about was the language of the Phoenicians. The Phoenicians were a nation of industrious merchants and brave seafarers who settled originally on the territory of the Lebanon. Their trading ships traveled across the Mediterranean, they often appeared in Egypt, Italy, and Greece, they voyaged across the Indian and Atlantic oceans. They were the first to round the Cape of Good Hope, the southernmost point of Africa. The Phoenicians were the first to create the alphabet, that later was borrowed by the Greeks. It is not surprising in this context that Phoenician was the international language for many centuries.

The Greek language replaced Phoenician as a means of international communication. After the military expeditions of Alexander of Macedonia the Greek language won recognition all over Asia. The Greek culture and language were imposed in all Hellenistic centres and states, including Egypt, Syria and Persia. The Romans went a little further. The Roman legionary marched to the ends of the earth carrying Latin, their language, with the help of their orators and philosophers to Europe, Asia, and Africa. From that time on the role of languages in the historical development of humanity has increased. Latin survived the collapse of the Roman Empire. Until the establishment of national states, new national languages that originated from Latin (French, Spanish, and Italian) were still emerging. In such circumstances although the native speakers of Latin were gone, it was a universal language of Mediaeval Europe for fifteen centuries. In Europe Latin was used for the serious business of government, diplomacy, and philosophy. A person who did not know Latin was unable to become educated because Latin was also the language of the Universities. In the Middle Ages students and professors traveled from one country to another, from one University to another, and nowhere they had any difficulties in understanding their colleagues and friends as all lectures were delivered in Latin.

Then with the emergence of national states and development of national languages the need to learn foreign languages became especially acute. Besides classical languages modern languages were introduced in the list of school studies. Educated people of Europe were to know several modern languages. For example, Rubens, the greatest painter of the Western civilization who lived in Flanders in the 17-th century, spoke and wrote six modern languages.

It should be said that not all the languages had equal importance in different centuries in the world. Preference was given to that one which country was more powerful at that time. In the 15-th and 16-th centuries Spain was in the vanguard of European and world expansion and the Spanish language could be heard in the far reaches of our planet. French became the dominant language of the Western world in the 17-th and 19-th centuries. In the 19-th century French was the official language in Russia. Since childhood Russian aristocrats were learning French. For example, Pushkin wrote his first poem in French. Russian was spoken only by common people.

In the first half of the 20-th century, during the period between two World Wars, English started gradually to replace French as the international language. Moreover, in the second half of the 20-th century the United States became the world's dominant power. The USA had enormous political, economic and cultural influence on the Western world.

It is interesting to note that before English emerged from lots of dialects, French had been the language of the English court and of the educated classes for three centuries since the Norman Conquest. It was Chaucer who chose English for his book "Canterbury Tales" and thereby helped decide the language in which England's literature would be written in centuries to come. In the 16-th century Shakespeare used over 29,000 English words, many invented by him. Germanic in origin English has words come from other sources, the result is an astonishingly wide vocabulary acquired quite early in its history. Now English is the language of unparalleled richness, subtlety and variety, which unlocks the treasures of the literature second to none in the world.

The transition from French to English as the international language was relatively easy because in many countries of the world people already knew English by that time. The British Empire brought English not only in the North America, but in the Australia, Africa, and India as well. The leadership of English in the modern world can be explained by numerous factors. Over 300 million people who live in Great Britain, Australia, New Zealand and the United States of America speak English is as a native tongue. English is one of the official languages in the Irish Republic, Canada, and the South African Republic. It is also the second official language used in the former British and U.S. colonies. English is one of the official languages of the United Nations Organization and other political organizations. It is the language of literature, education, modern music, international tourism.

The dominance of English in the contemporary world is explained by the appearance of lots of people who want to learn English not for pleasure or prestige but because English has become the key to international scientific, technological and commercial innovations of today.

Previously the reason for learning any foreign language was not well defined. Knowledge of foreign languages was regarded as a sign of a well-rounded education, but few had really questioned why it was necessary. The problem of learning languages is very important today, foreign languages are socially demanded especially at the present time when the progress in science and technology has led to an explosion of knowledge. The total knowledge of mankind doubles every seven years. English is needed as the main and the most efficient means of information exchange. With the acceptance of English as the international language of technology and commerce appears a new generation of people who know why they are learning the language. Scientists and scholars need it to keep up with developments in their fields. Many students need English because their course of studies includes textbooks avail able only in English. Young people around the world need English in order to be able to use the Internet, communicate with their partners in other countries, and understand films and songs.

Unfortunately, there is no universal or ideal method of learning languages. Everybody has his own way. Sometimes it is boring to study grammar or learn new words. When learning a foreign language one learns the culture and history of the native speakers. One must work hard to learn any foreign language.

Living in the Dorm – Surviving College Dorm Life

You will be entering a new time in your life – a new home away from the home that you have known for years. Every student that comes to the college, living in the dorms does have their own routines, daily life habits and particular ‘ways’ about them. This being said, you will have to remember that living in a dorm will become like one over grown over sized extension of a family. Having to share space, telephones, televisions, bathrooms – with what will be strangers at first.

A student can adjust easily to this type of situation because of the many classes, studying hours and extra curricular activities that are scheduled for the full time student. Fitting your personal lifestyle in to these routines will not be so much of a challenge as one might think.

New roommate?! – Yes you will more than likely be sharing a small room with a total stranger – how will you adapt? Will you be friends? Many roommates become the best of friends while others just will never be friends. This is a life long learning experience about people that will educate you and other about how to interact with strangers on a daily personal basis.

Getting the most out of your roommate experience – start out on a good base. Learning to live in the same room / or house can be exciting and frightening for those of us who have never lived away from home before. You and your roommate will need to sit down, decide who will do what and when in regards to the cleaning of your space. This space could just consist of the floor in your room, or if you have a bathroom, the chores could include the scrubbing of the tub and the toilet. The sooner that the two of you agree on a schedule that will include the two of you working together the easier this transition will be. Neither of you will want to do the cleaning but there will be one else but the two of you.

Be flexible in your room. Every one has friends, visitors and study time – be considerate of your roommate and they in return will be considerate of your time, friends, and space.

Do not yell at your roommate. Discuss; try to communicate what you are upset about. Tell them why you do not want them using your stuff, bed, food etc. and give them a chance to apologize. The argument will be shorter and more to the point. If you were to start screaming you may not hear the end of the argument for days, which will stress out what relationship you did have with your roommate.

Oxford Accent

When freshmen return in October, they will be second year men and women. Academically, they will be approaching middle age. How much of a stamp has Oxford put on them already? Have they started to acquire an Oxford accent?

The Oxford accent exists, but it defies definition. It is not as the French think the kind of English which is spoken within a twenty mile radius of the city. Indeed, it is not an accent at all, but a manner of speaking. In particular it is a manner of pausing in your speech, of pausing not at the end of sentences, where you might be interrupted, but in the middle of sentences. Nobody, it is to be hoped, will be so rude as to interrupt you when you are in the middle of a sentence. So pause there to decide what your next sentence is going to be. Then, having decided, move quickly forward to it without a moment's pause at the full stop. Yet, jumping your full stops – that is the Oxford accent. Do it well, and you will be able to talk forever. Nobody will have the chance of breaking in and stealing the conversation from you.

The Oxford accent, so called, is also a matter of redefining the other person's statement on your terms. Wait for him to say whatever he has to say. Then start yourself: "What you really mean is ...". Nothing could be ruder.

The Educational Structure

Elementary and High Schools

The educational history of the United States has certain peculiarities of its own which are closely connected with the specific conditions of life in the New World and the history of American society. The first white settlers who came to North America from Europe in the 17th century brought with them the educational ideas most typical of the countries they represented. Intensive political, economic and legal struggles in connection with all kinds of educational problems were carried on throughout most of the 19th century.

Now the Constitution of the USA does not refer to education specifically, nor does it assign the federal government any power in that field. Education remains primarily a function of the states. The actual control of a school system in each state belongs to the Board of Education.

American education is intended to be more practical and less "academic". In the USA there are two major divisions in the elementary and secondary school system: public schools and private schools. The majority of American children attend the state supported public schools which are open to everyone without a selective examination at a secondary level. Of course in America they also have private high and even elementary schools where the fee is high and children are accepted on the results of an entrance examination. There are eight years of elementary and four years of secondary schooling there. A child enters the first grade at the age of six. Having finished the eighth grade he enters the high school.

The program of studies in the elementary school includes English, arithmetic, geography, history of the USA, elementary natural science. Physical training, music, drawing and manual training are often taught. Religious teaching is officially not permitted, although the exercises of the day are often opened with a reading from the Bible and the singing of a hymn. In elementary schools children remain in one classroom for instructions in all courses by one teacher, in high schools the students go to different rooms and teachers for different courses.

The junior high school continues some elementary subjects, but it also introduces courses in mathematics and science and usually gives students their first chance to study a foreign language. Although there are some technical, vocational and specialized high schools in the USA; the typical high school is comprehensive in nature. The objectives of the comprehensive high school are to provide:

1. General education for all students;

2. Subjects useful to those who will leave high school for employment or marriage;

3. Necessary preparatory education for those planning to enter colleges and universities.

Both public and private schools possess a high degree of autonomy in organizing and developing their educational programs. In the last quarter of the 18th century a substantial number of private schools and academies were founded. Modeled after the English academy, these schools were usually residential, with curriculum pointed towards preparation for college. They have been known as Independent Schools. These schools have considerable prestige today and attract many more applicants than they can accept as students.

Higher Education

Higher education is provided by colleges and universities. The main difference between them is that a university is a collection of colleges each of which specializes in a different field. A junior college usually offers courses related to local industry, agriculture or crafts. Each college or university in the USA determines its own entrance policies. Some admit any high school graduate with appropriate preparatory subjects and consider themselves "open door" institutions, giving everyone an opportunity to learn. Other institutions are highly selective and competitive, admitting only a small proportion of the many qualified candidates. Most public colleges and universities charge tuition, as do private institutions. If the student is living away from home he must add to his tuition fee room and board expenses.

The academic year is usually of nine months duration, or two semesters of four and a half months each. Classes usually begin in September and end in June. In the typical American liberal arts college the first two years are devoted to "general" education. This program consists of English literature and composition, a foreign language, science, social science and mathematics. During one semester, a student studies four or five different subjects. The students’ progress is often evaluated through quizzes (short oral or written tests), term papers and a final examination in each course. Each part of a student's work in a course is given a mark which helps to determine his final grade.

College grades, determined by each instructor on the basis of class work and examinations, are usually on a five point scale, with letters to indicate the levels of achievement. '"A" is the highest mark, indicating superior accomplishment, and the letters go through B, C, D to E or F, which denotes failure.

The methods of instruction in the universities are the lecture, discussion and work in laboratory. A student is called a freshman in his first year, and in the next 3 years he is called sophomore, junior and senior. The traditional degree which crowns the college course is that of Bachelor of Arts (A.B.). After completing the 4-year college course and graduating as a Bachelor one can continue his research to get Master’s or Doctor’s degree.

The US System of Education

American education remains today what it was in the earliest days of the Republic: the anvil upon which the national culture is created and adapted to changing needs. Its goal is universal education from kindergarten to university.

All, regardless of race or class or economic status, are entitled to a fair chance and to the tools for developing their individual powers of mind and spirit to the utmost.

Education in the United States comprises three basic levels: elementary, secondary and higher education. Parents may choose whether to send their children to their local free public schools, or to private schools which charge fees. The organization and curricula of private schools and colleges are similar to those of public schools although the administration differs.

The vast majority of students at the primary and secondary levels go to public schools. Most of those who attend private schools attend church sponsored parochial schools.

The school year is usually nine months long, from early September to mid-June. The common pattern of organization, referred to as the 6-3-3 plan, includes elementary school in grades 1 through 6, junior high school in grades 7 through 9 and senior high school in grades 10 through 12. However, many variations on the pattern exist in the USA.

The main purpose of elementary school is the general intellectual and social development of the child from 6 to 12 or 15 years of age.

In secondary schools most pupils follow a course that includes English, science, social studies, mathematics and physical education. Elective subjects may be chosen in the fields of foreign languages, fine arts and vocational training. Pupils usually elect about half their work in grades nine through twelve.

The vocational program may give training in four fields: agricultural education, business education, home economics and trade and industrial education. This program prepares students either for employment or further training.

Most young Americans graduate from school with a high school diploma upon satisfactory completion of a specified number of courses. Students are usually graded from A (excellent) to F (failing) in each course they take on the basis of performance in tests given at intervals throughout the year.

Students receive «report cards» at least twice a year which indicate the grades they have received in each of the subjects. High schools maintain a school «transcript» which summarizes the courses taken and the grades obtained for each student.

Usually, the pupil has one teacher for all major subjects during his or her first six years of schooling. For the last six grades, however, they have a separate teacher for each discipline.

The US is committed to providing every youngster with a good, solid education, regardless of the economic background or even the inherent ability of the youngster.

In May 1983 the National Commission on Excellence in Education stirred considerable concern when it reported that the US was «at risk» from the «rising tide of mediocrity». It judged that standards were too low, the school day too short, teachers paid too little, and education was too far down on the list of national priorities. Among the Commission's recommendations were calls for higher standards, more time to be devoted to basic academic subjects and attracting a higher calibre of individual to the teaching profession. Besides, it was necessary to strengthen the bonds between federal, state and local authorities aimed at raising student achievements at all levels.

The American people have accepted the view that the quality of education is directly related to the quality of life. It is part of the American tradition to presume that they can improve.

British English vs. American English

Though British and American spelling is the same in most cases, it differs in a few details, which sometimes leads an inexperienced student to failures in his attempts to find some unknown words in the dictionary.

If a student looks for the word "reflexion" in a small dictionary he may be unable to identify the word, unless he recollects that there may be some difference in spelling, and that the American "exion" looks "ection" in the British usage.

A few other examples of different spelling are as follows:

British English American English

honour honor

colour color

theatre theater

centre center

catalogue catalog

programme program

The changes introduced into the American variety of English are to be found in grammar and structure as well, but they are especially evident in the vocabulary. Some English words have developed new meanings, and many of these are traceable to the development of American institutions and American ways of life. Yet the striking feature of American English innovations is their close correspondence to characteristics of the temperament and the ways of life of the people who developed them.

British English American English

minister secretary

secondary school high school

biscuits cookies

flat apartment

form (school) grade

lift elevator

post mail

pavement sidewalk

lorry truck

petrol gasoline (gas)

wash up do the dishes

wash your hands wash up

There are many lists of equivalent British and American words, but they must not be taken too seriously. Americans do not usually say "first floor" for "second floor", they do not call a "trillion" a "billion" (in British English a billion is a million millions, whereas in American English it is what the British call a "milliard" – a mere thousand millions). But most educated Americans are quite aware of the British equivalents. Valid differences in the use of words are not really very numerous or very significant.

It's Interesting To Know British and American English

British and American people speak the same language – right? Wrong. Although they both speak English, there is an increasing number of differences between the two varieties of English. For example, Trudi Burns and Eileen Unwin recently spent a very similar day. Here, they describe the day's events. How many differences can you spot?

Trudi (USA):

I got up at seven-thirty. I put on my bath robe, went into the bathroom and turned on the bath-tub faucets. After my bath I ate breakfast with my parents on the deck. Our apartment's on the fifteenth floor, so the view's terrific. At eight o'clock my mom and I took the elevator to the parking lot underneath our apartment block. First we stopped for gas, and then she drove me to school. The freeway was really busy – automobiles everywhere. When I got to school it was raining.

School was OK except that we had a math test before recess. I think I flunked it. Anyway, after school I took a bus downtown to meet my sister, Susan. She became a grade school teacher after she left college last year. We ate out at a Chinese restaurant. Personally I don't like rice, so I ordered french-fries instead. Susan disapproved. After dessert and coffee we paid the check and left. It had stopped raining, but the sidewalks were still wet. Susan gave me a ride home, then I did a history assignment for the next day, watched a movie on TV and went to bed around 11.30. I was pooped!

Eileen (Great Britain):

I got up at half past seven. I put on my dressing gown, went into the bathroom and turned on the bath taps. After my bath I had breakfast with my parents on the terrace. Our flat's on the fifteenth floor, so the view's terrific. At eight o'clock my mum and I took the lift to the car park under our block of flats. First we stopped for petrol, then she drove me to school. The motorway was really busy – cars everywhere. When I got to school it was raining.

School was OK, except that we had a maths exam before break. I think I failed it. Anyway, after school I took a bus to the city centre to meet my sister, Susan. She became a primary school teacher after she left university last year. We went out for dinner to a Chinese restaurant. Personally I don't like rice, so I ordered chips instead. Susan disapproved. After sweet and coffee we paid the bill and left. It had stopped raining but the pavements were still wet. Susan gave me a lift home, then I did some history homework for the next day, watched a film on the TV and went to bed at about half past eleven. I was really tired!

The Queen's English and the President's English

The American vocabulary during the 19th century began to be exported abroad, and by the 20th century, with its economic, political and technological prominence in the world, America and its language became one of the greatest forces for change and the expansion of English. American infiltration of the British word stock began before talking films, radio, and television were ever thought of, although they have certainly hastened the process.

In recent years many Americanisms have been introduced into British usage: "cafeteria, cocktail, egghead, electrocute, fan". American "radio" has replaced British "wireless". The ubiquitous OK seems to occur more frequently nowadays in England than in the land of its birth and may be found in quite formal situations, such as on legal documents to indicate the correctness of details. These and other Americanisms have slipped into British English in the most unobtrusive way, so that their American origin is hardly regarded at all; since they are used by the English, they are "English", and that is all there is to it.

We can cite as firmly established in Standard British English "DJ", "natural" (something very suitable), "show business", "star" (popular performer) – all originally from the usage of the world of entertainment, enormously important in Modern America. Most words and usages are frequently borrowed from American English quite unconsciously. Even when they are consciously borrowed, the fact that they are of transatlantic origin is soon forgotten. To recognize American coinages sometimes means to get a taste of American history and character: abolitionist, automobile, baby-sit, basketball, chewing gum, credit card, electric chair, home-made, know-how and so on and on.

Many of the new American words added to the English vocabulary are based on old processes, such as compounding existing words, as in "boyfriend, bookstore, and brainstorm". American English also tends to coin and use more freely nouns compounded from a verb and a preposition, such as "blowout, checkup, fallout, feedback", etc. New words are frequently created by shifting the function of an existing word. Nouns are used as verbs: to park, to package, to program, to vacation; adjectives can become nouns: briefs, comics, reds.

The convenient use of noun as verb in "to contact", meaning "to see, call, meet, get in touch with", seems to have originated in America, though it might just as well have done so in England, since there is nothing un-English about such a functional change. But this one word "contact" carries high symbolic importance – there will be no American language, for the simple reason that the Queen's English and the President's English grow together.

20th Century Music Styles

The 20-th century is by all means considered to be the most influential period of time in the development of music. In the 20-th century there were more practising musicians than in all previous centuries taken together. In the 20-th century there was no mainstream but various styles in music. It is not an easy task to describe these music styles. They reflect the world that was constantly changing. Desires and fears of the people of the 20-th century found their outlet in music. The 20-th century opened a new era in the history of mankind, and the new epoch was to be described in new musical forms. The rules were left in the past. In the 20-th century everybody could choose the music that he would enjoy. It was exciting in its adventurous freedom.

In the 1920s in New Orleans beautiful music filled the streets and cafes. The black and poor singers sang about their hard lives. Their music – jazz, ragtime and blues – soon traveled to Europe. It was the time when the black music entered the whites' culture changing the lifestyle of the people all over the world. Ever since the 1930s music was not just a way to relax. From that time on music began to reflect and determine the people's way of life.

Many sub-cultures developed as a result of the fusion of black and white music cultures. Black music evolved in the Caribbean and in the United States, later it moved to Britain. Such styles as reggae, rap, hip-hop to say nothing of the blues were created by the black community. Today many white musicians either perform the black music or use the black melodies in creating their own songs.

In the 1940s and 1950s new styles of music emerged. Swing, rock'n'roll and singers like Jerry Lee Lewis and Chuck Berry destroyed the laws of morality that were imposed on the people by the Church for centuries. In the 1950s Elvis Presley became the king of rock 'n' roll in the United States of America. The new music traveled to Europe soon. It was especially popular among the teenagers. The parents were really shocked by "Devil's music" that their children adored. The young people disagreed with their parents, wore their jeans and danced to their rock 'n' roll records.

In the 1960s in Great Britain, in Liverpool a new band was created. It was soon to be known world-wide as the "Beatles". John Lennon and Paul McCartney were writing simple songs and performing them so brilliantly that they gave a new impulse for the development of the musical community. Other members of the famous group were George Harrison and Ringo Starr. Such songs as "Yesterday", "Let It Be", "Love Me Do", and "Yellow Submarine" made them the most popular band not only in England, but throughout the world as well.

From the British Isles their music quickly traveled to Europe, America and other continents. Early in 1964 what soon came to be called "Beatlemania" struck the United States. For the first time British pop music was important abroad. Such U.S. performers as Chuck Berry and Elvis Presley admired the music of the "Beatles".