Текст книги "Basic Course Reader (Сборник текстов для базового курса по английскому языку) "

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There are also many schools which the State does not control. They are private schools. They charge fees for educating children, and many of them are boarding schools, at which pupils live during the term time.

After leaving school many young people go to colleges of further education. Those who become students at Colleges of Technology (called «Techs») come from different schools at different ages between 15 and 17. The lectures at such colleges, each an hour long, start at 9.15 in the morning and end at 4.45 in the afternoon.

The organization of state schooling is not as centralized as in most European countries. Firstly, there is no prescribed curriculum. Secondly, the types of school available and the age ranges for which they cater vary in different parts of the country. In each area Local Education Authority is responsible for education. At any publicly-maintained school no tuition fees are payable. State schooling in the United Kingdom is financed partly by the Government and partly by local rates.

Schooling is voluntary under the age of five, but there is some free nursery school education before that age. Primary education takes place in infant schools for pupils aged from five to seven years old and junior schools (from eight to eleven years). Some areas have a different system in which middle schools replace junior schools and take pupils aged from nine to twelve years. Secondary education has been available in Britain since 1944. It is compulsory up to the age of sixteen, and pupils can stay at school voluntarily for up to three years longer.

Until 1964 children took an «eleven plus» exam at the age of eleven. At this exam they were selected, or «streamed» according to their current level of academic attainment, for education in different types of secondary schools. Grammar schools provided a mainly academic course for the top 20 percent; modern schools provided a general education with a practical bias. There were also a few technical schools-academic equals of grammar schools but specializing in technical studies.

In 1965 non-selective comprehensive schools were introduced. Most local education authorities have now completely changed over to comprehensive schooling.

At the age of sixteen pupils take school-leaving examinations in several subjects at the Ordinary level. The exam used to be conducted by eight independent examining boards, most of them connected with a university. This examination could also be taken by candidates at a further education establishment. This exam was called the General Certificate of Education. Pupils of comprehensive school had taken the examination called the Certificate of Secondary Education either with or instead of the General Certificate of Education, Ordinary level.

A General Certificate of Education of Advanced («A») level was taken two years after the Ordinary level exam. In 1988 both examinations were replaced by the more or less uniform General Certificate of Secondary Education. The private sector is running parallel to the state system of education; there are about 2500 fee-charging independent schools in Great Britain. Most private schools are single-sex until the age of 16. More and more parents seem prepared to take on the formidable extra cost for education. The reason is the belief that social advantages are gained from attending a certain school. The most expensive day or boarding schools in Britain are exclusive public schools like Eton College for boys or St. James' school for girls.

British Universities

There are about 90 universities in Britain. They are divided into three types: the old universities (Oxford, Cambridge and Edinburgh Universities), the 19th century universities such as London and Manchester universities, and the new universities. Some years ago there were also polytechnics. After graduating from a polytechnic a student got a degree, but it was not a university degree. 31 former polytechnics were given university status in 1992.

Full courses of study offer the degree of Bachelor of Arts or Science. Most degree courses at universities last 3 years, language courses 4 years (including a year spent abroad). Medicine and dentistry courses are longer (5-7 years).

Students may receive grants from their Local Education Authority to help pay for books, accommodation, transport and food. This grant depends on the income of their parents.

Most students live away from home, in flats or halls of residence. Students don't usually have a job during term time because the lessons, called lectures, seminars, classes or tutorials (small groups), are full time. However, many students now have to work in the evenings.

University life is considered «an experience». The exams are competitive but the social life and living away from home are also important. The social life is excellent with a lot of clubs, parties, concerts, bars.

There are not only universities in Britain but also colleges. Colleges offer courses in teacher training, courses in technology and. some professions connected with medicine.

Pupils going on to higher education or professional training usually take «A» level examinations in two or three subjects. Universities accept students mainly on the basis of their «A» level results, although they may interview them as well. In 1971 the Open University was started, where these formal qualifications are not necessary. Nearly a quarter of all adult part-time students follow its degree courses on radio and television.

There are forty-seven universities in Britain and thirty former polytechnics (now also universities), plus 350 colleges and institutes of higher education (some of which train teachers).

Undergraduate courses normally take three years of full-time study, although a number of subjects take longer, including medicine, architecture and foreign languages (where courses include a year abroad). They lead in most cases to a Bachelor's degree in Arts or Science. There are various postgraduate degrees, including Master and Doctor of Philosophy. The last two are awarded for research in arts or sciences.

Degrees are awarded either by the institution itself, or by the Council for National Academic Awards, particularly in vocational areas. Students of law, architecture and some other professions can take qualifications awarded by their own professional bodies instead of degrees.

At present, students who have been accepted by universities or other institutions of higher education receive a grant from their local authority, which covers the cost of the course, and may cover living expenses. Parents with higher incomes are expected to make a contribution. Until 1990 the grant did not have to be paid back, but now a system of loans has been introduced.

The most famous universities are Oxford and Cambridge, called «Oxbridge». They are famous for their academic excellence of higher education.

School Education in the USA

Americans have shown a great concern for education since early colonial times. Today, there are some 43 million pupils and students in public schools at the elementary and secondary levels, and another 6 million in private schools throughout the country.

The USA does not have a national system of education. The function of the Federal Department of Education is merely to gather information, to advise and help finance some educational programs. All educational matters are left to individual states. 50 states are free to determine its own system for its own public school. In 1986 50 percent of the funds for elementary and secondary education came from state sources, 43 from local funds, and only 6 % from the federal government.

There are two major types of schools in the USA – public and private, or fee-paying. Four out of five private schools are run by churches, synagogues and other religious groups.

Most schools start at nursery level at the age of 3. Elementary education starts at the age of 6 and continues till 10-11 years. Secondary education is provided from the age of 11-12 years. Intermediate school includes grades 6 through 9 for ages 11 (12) up to 14(15) years. Schools of this stage are called intermediate schools or junior high schools.

A senior high school may include grades 9 through 12 or 10 through 12. Senior high schools in the United States can be classified in 3 major categories according to program. A senior high school may be comprehensive, generator vocational. A comprehensive school is open to all youths of a community area and offers a broad program of academic, prevocational and vocational education.

A general school is also open, but it offers a more limited program. Extensive program of prevocational or vocational courses and advanced courses in academic studies are usually excluded.

A vocational school is for students of the community who are interested in its specialized area of training and a program of general education.

A specialized school is for pupils with special capabilities who are qualified to concentrate in a particular area of study. It is for the academically, musically, artistically gifted.

The American secondary school provides the course program of school subjects and a program of extracurricular activities, including organized sports, Most schools publish their own student newspapers, have orchestras, bands, choir, theatre and drama groups, etc.

What makes American education at the secondary level so different from most other countries is that all such programs, whether academic, technical, or practical, are generally taught under one roof.

High school students who wish to attend a college or university go through one of the two standard tests – SAT and ACT. They are given by non-profit, non-governmental organizations.

The federal government pays little attention to school education in the USA. There is neither a uniform school system in the USA, nor a uniform curriculum. Each state has its own system of schools. But there are some common features in the organization of school education in the country.

Schools in the USA can be divided into state, or public schools, and private schools. State schools are free, and private schools are fee-paying.

Elementary and secondary schools consist of twelve grades. Classes last for about ten months a year, five days a week and five hours a day. At elementary school English, mathematics, science, social studies, music sports and other subjects are taught.

Elementary education begins at the age of six, when a child goes to the first grade. Secondary education is offered at high schools. At the age of 14 pupils go to junior high school. At the age of sixteen children leave junior high school and may continue their education at the upper grades of high school.

Besides giving general education some high schools teach some other subjects. Students choose these subjects if they want to enter colleges or universities or hope to find jobs in industry or agriculture. Many schools include classes teaching basic computer skills.

A growing number of young people go to colleges or universities. Nevertheless, many students of high school don't finish it. One per cent of American citizens from the age of 14 can neither read nor write.

Higher Education in the USA

In the United States a student who has finished high school may want to continue in higher education. There are several ways to do it: universities, colleges, community colleges, and technical or vocational schools.

A university in the United States usually has several different colleges in it. Each has a special subject area. There may be a college of liberal arts where humanities, social sciences, natural sciences and mathematics are taught. There may be a college of education and a college of business. A program for undergraduates usually takes four years. University students get an undergraduate degree in the arts or sciences. If they complete a course of study they get Bachelor of Arts or Science degree. Students may leave the university at this time. They may also go on for a graduate or professional degree. The university always has programs for graduate and professional study in many subjects.

The university may get money from several different sources. A publicly funded university gets some money from the state government. A privately funded university gets money only from private sources. Or the university may be funded by a religious group.

College students usually spend four years at school, too. A college does not have graduate or professional programs. If a college student completes a course of study in arts or science, he or she gets Bachelor of Arts or Science degree. If college students want to continue for a graduate or professional degree, they must go to University. The college is usually funded in one of the three ways already described.

The program of study in the community college usually lasts two years. Not all of the subjects taught there are the usual school subjects. The community college may give courses in the regular academic subjects or subjects like dental technology, sewing and other non-academic subjects. Not all students of the community college have a high school diploma. They may then go to a college for two more years to get the bachelor's degree. Community colleges are nearly always publicly funded. .

The technical or vocational school has only job training, it has no academic program. Students may have a high school diploma, or not. Programs may take from six months to two years and more. The technical or vocational school gives training for work in areas such as electronics, carpentry and others.

Higher education in the United States includes educational programmes which usually require for admission 12 years of elementary and secondary schooling. It is carried on under a number of forms.

The most common type of higher education is the college. It requires for admission graduation from a standard secondary school; its four-year curriculum leads to the bachelor's degree in arts and sciences.

The American college is known by various titles such as the college of liberal arts, the college of arts and sciences, and the college of literature, science and arts. The college may be the central unit around which the university is organized, or it may be a separate corporate entity, independent from the University.

The university in the United States is an educational institution comprising a college of liberal arts and sciences, a professional school leading to a professional degree and a graduate college (school). A graduate college provides programmes for study and research beyond the levels of the bachelor's and first professional degree.

The word «university», however, is also used in a broader sense, for almost any type of educational institution offering instruction beyond the level of the secondary school. Thus in the United States there is some confusion in the use of the terms «college» and «university». Some institutions that are in fact colleges of liberal arts have been incorporated in the universities. Some institutions incorporated in colleges are in fact universities with graduate and professional schools.

In addition to colleges and universities there is a large number of professional schools, separate from universities. They provide preparation in one or more professional fields, such as law, music or theology. Junior colleges or professional schools do not offer the full four-year curriculum leading to a degree.

An institute of technology is a degree-granting institution that specializes in science and technology; some of them have graduate study. An institution offering programs of technological study only at the junior college level is known as a technical institution.

The colleges in the United States differ greatly in size – they may include from 100 to 5 000 students and more. Most of the larger institutions fall into the category of universities, the largest being University of California, State University of New York, New York University, Columbia University and others.

Education in Great Britain

Education in Great Britain is provided by the Local Education Authority (LEA) in each county. Until recently, each LEA was free to decide how to organize education in its own area. However, in 1988 the «National Curriculum» was introduced. It means that there is greater government control over what is taught in schools now.

Children under five don't have to go to school, but there is some free nursery-school education before that age. The places are usually given to families in special circumstances, for example families with one parent only. That's why in many areas parents have formed play groups where children under five years can go for a morning or afternoon a couple of times a week.

At the age of five children go to primary schools, first to infant schools for pupils aged from 5 to 7 and then to junior schools for pupils from 8 to 11 years.

Some parents choose to pay for private education though there are free state schools. The preparatory schools are for pupils aged up to 13, and the public schools are for 13 to 18 year-olds. These schools are very expensive and they are attended only by about 5 per cent of the schoolchildren.

Free secondary education has been available to all children in Britain since 1944. Children must go to school until the age of 16, and pupils may stay on for one or two years more if they wish.

Over 80 per cent of schoolchildren go to comprehensive schools at the age of 11. These schools are not selective – you don't have to pass an exam to go there. But before 1965 all children took an exam at the age of 11 called the «11+». The top 20 per cent were chosen to go to the academic grammar schools. Those who failed the «11 + » went to secondary modern schools. A lot of people thought that this system of selection at the age of 11 was unfair on many children. So comprehensive schools were introduced to offer education for pupils of all abilities. There are a few LEAs who still keep the old system, but most LEAs have now changed over completely to non-selective education in comprehensive schools.

Comprehensive schools want to develop the talents of each individual child. So they offer a wide choice of subjects, from art and craft, woodwork and domestic science to the sciences, modern languages, computer studies, etc. All these subjects are enjoyed by both girls and boys. All pupils move to the next class automatically at the end of the year.

At the age of 14 or 15 pupils begin to choose their exam subjects. In 1988 a new public examination – the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) – was introduced for 16 year-olds. This examination assesses pupils on the work they do in the 4^th and 5^th year at secondary school. For University entrance pupils have to take «A» Level (Advanced Level) GCE exam.

Many people decide to leave school at the age of 16 and go to a Further Education (FE) College for practical vocational training, for example in engineering, typing, cooking or hairdressing.

Education in Japan

The # 1 concern for anyone in Japan is education. Most mothers don't work outside the home, especially when their children are small. Their major profession is mothering, and the Japanese mothers are said to be an agent of the educational system, which would not work without her. These women have a curriculum for their kids, and they are very inventive about it, with games and songs, exercise and dancing. Fathers are not much involved, and they are usually with the kids only on Sunday. So their nickname for father is the Sunday friend.

When you walk into a Japanese elementary school classroom you discover that it is very, very noisy. Kids are jumping all around and calling out answers to questions. Japanese teachers are relaxed, not trying to control the classroom. The kids are so involved that the teacher often says that the noise level is the measure of her ability to motivate them.

Another important principle of Japanese education is that all kids are innately equal and therefore they are all treated the same. The Japanese are sure that what matters is effort. Children are taught to think of themselves as members of a group. The school is a society with its own ways of doing things. And the most important goal for teachers is to give children the confidence of membership. Children learn about social relationships. In the first grade, before doing anything academic, the teacher spends the first part of the year getting the children socialized to the ways of the school and the habits of working together in groups.

In grade school, it is common to divide the group into smaller groups of five or six kids each. Tasks are assigned to these groups rather than to individuals. The small group leader is like a kid teacher who helps bring up the slow students. The system works because it takes the pressure off the individual. She/he stands or falls with the group. It's just like the work teams that are established in the workplace. These teams support individuals and allow people to be creative within the group.

All junior high school kids learn to play two musical instruments. The Japanese believe that creativity comes after mastery, and mastery is what the schools can offer.

Exams – How to Deal with Anxiety

Many students have stress, worries and anxieties when thinking about or taking an exam. You should start with attending all of your classes; you will already be partially prepared because of your attendance in the classroom. Complete all of your assignments, these assignments are for your continued understanding of the materials and will aid you in your realizing that the subject is comprehendible by you. Once you have mastered the basics in the classroom and material understanding the rest will come easily. There will never be a guarantee by anyone that you will do well on an exam no matter how much you should study, but in understanding the materials you should feel confident enough to take the exam.

Avoidance of stress in your life should be another top priority as your exam time approaches. Keep regular hours; your body will notice a difference and your mind will be tired if you don’t keep regular sleeping habits. This theory also applies to the all-nighters that some students pull. Studying away all-night to complete or cram for a test will deplete your mind and body of you balance until you get the rest you need. Start studying for a test at least two weeks before the exam; giving your self-breaks between studying will help you retain more knowledge. Eating from a regular diet also helps you build concentration and the feeling of self-confidence. If you are eating straight chocolate and chips for a week your body will feel depleted of nutrients needed to keep you motivated.

Keeping your body and mind in tune with your on going classes and studying needs will give you extra motivation needed to conquer an exam. As you prepare to head to class to take the actual exam, make sure you have all of the needed supplies – pens, paper, calculator, and eraser – anything that keeps you in control. Being afraid of the exam or test, it is a normal feeling that many students have and face everyday. You will find that some students need to crack jokes before a test, have a quick jog, or even some may need to take a nap before a big exam to feel relaxed and in control of their feelings as they approach the testing time.

Foreign Languages in the Life of an Educated Person

Today it is quite evident that everyone should know at least one foreign language.

Knowing one or more foreign languages makes it possible to get acquainted with different ways of thinking, to understand a new civilization. Learning a foreign language stimulates mental abilities and gives you a chance to appreciate a new literature, a different culture and to broaden your horizons.

Besides, knowing foreign languages has a practical value. It makes it easier to choose a profession and provides job promotion. It helps to improve the quality of your work, because it reduces the time lost on obtaining the necessary information. At present many professions, such as a pilot, a doctor, an engineer, a cosmonaut and many others, require a working knowledge of at least one foreign language.

People all over the world speak almost 3,000 languages. Some languages are spoken by millions of people, others by only hundreds of them. The most wide-spread language in the world is Chinese. 350 million people speak English as their first language. About the same number use it as a second language. Russian is also one of the most prevalent, expressive and rich languages in the world. 240 million people speak Russian nowadays.

Among the great number of languages that exist on our planet today there are some which stand out. Scientists distinguish 13 great languages. These are the languages that are spoken by no less than 50 per cent of people on the Earth. They are Chinese, English, Russian, Spanish, Hindi and Urdu, Indonesian, Arabic, Bengali, Portuguese, Japanese, German, French, Italian.

A person who knows these languages can speak to and understand almost 2 thousand million people and doesn't suffer from the language barrier. To state the significance of this or that language one must take into consideration not only its prevalence but the quantity of printed production. For instance, the largest number of books is published in Russian including technical literature. The greatest number of press production is published in English. As far as books are concerned, the largest number of them is translated from English, Russian, French and German accordingly.

Today there are a lot of people in Europe and Asia who know several languages. A person who knows several languages is called a polyglot. They are not few. The name of Henrich Schlimann, a famous German archaeologist who discovered Troy is known all over the world. It took him two years to learn the first two foreign languages. Later on it took him several weeks to master another foreign language. Among polyglots there are champions. Thus, Cardinal Mezzophanti who lived in the middle of the last century knew 100 languages. Professor Hesstermann from Germany knew 132 languages. The more languages man knows the easier is the way he masters a new one. As polyglots say it is difficult to begin. But when you start learning a third language «everything is going on swimmingly». It is within everyone's power to know, read and speak a foreign language. But one should regard learning a foreign language as a very important and serious task. The knowledge of other languages is very useful, especially if you have to work abroad or if you must read foreign literature in the original. If you know the language of a foreign country, you can talk to its people and understand what they are speaking about without anybody's help. The knowledge of foreign languages also helps young people of different countries to develop friendship.

Many people are learning English, because in the recent years it has become not only an international language, it is now a number one language in the world. Besides, English is becoming a lingua franca. It is used a great deal by businessmen from different countries, which don't have a common language, in order to do business. It is already a lingua franca at international conferences. Besides, every person who travels in Europe, Asia or Africa, even in the South America gets around by using English. So English is becoming more and more the “language for practical use”.

English has become the world's most important language in politics, science, trade and cultural relations, aviation, international sport and pop music. It is nowadays second only to Chinese. It is the official language in 44 countries: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the United States of America, Australia, New Zealand and others. It is used as one of the official languages in Canada, the Irish Republic. It is also spoken as a second language by many people in India, Pakistan and numerous countries in Africa, to say nothing of people all over the world who know English as a foreign language. From the British Isles English spread all over the world. 75 per cent of the world's mail is in English, 60 per cent of the world's radio stations broadcast in English and more than a half of the world's periodicals are printed in English.

It is known that different languages can come into fashion or go out of it. It is generally considered that the most fashionable language in the world nowadays is English. Spanish also becomes very popular. It is learnt nowadays more often than earlier. Oriental languages are also widespread today. Learning a foreign language has a practical value but the choice of a foreign language sometimes depends on a fashion (this fashion turns out to be the demands of life and society). Thus, the knowledge of a foreign language today is a life necessity.

Learning Languages

Language is the means of communication. The most common way of expressing an idea for people is to say it out loud. Language enables people to understand each other. At the same moment language can be a major barrier to understanding because there are thousands of different languages on our planet. From the earliest time, with the development of trade and exchange of ideas and techniques people saw the necessity of learning foreign languages. Egyptian pharaohs had scribes and interpreters at their disposal.

A language that is used as a means of communication by people of different nations is called international. International language helps people of different nations to understand each other. Different epochs had different international languages. As a rule the existence of the language as an international one is determined by political, cultural and economic development of the country which language is spoken as international.

International language is not the phenomenon of our age only. The first international language appeared on the Earth with the birth of civilization. The Biblical myth about the mixture of languages during the construction of the Babylon Tower, when the people lost their universal language and thus could not communicate, was a reflection of how dearly the people of ancient periods held the gift of speech and understanding. Ever since those times the foreign languages and people who knew them played a significant part in the development of international relations and trade of different countries.